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de Villiers, M.S.; Richardson, P.R.K.; van Jaarsveld, A.S. |
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Patterns of coalition formation and spatial association in a social carnivore, the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) |
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2003 |
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Journal of Zoology |
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J Zool |
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260 |
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4 |
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377-389 |
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coalitions; social systems; Carnivora; Lycaon pictus |
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In many social species, relationships within groups seem to be non-random but related to variables such as rank, kinship or sexual attractiveness. The endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus is a social carnivore that lives in large, stable packs, and intra-pack associations might be expected to display similar patterns. We investigated patterns of coalition formation (support during dominance interactions, and partnership interactions) and resting associations between members of a captive pack of 19 wild dogs. The social organization of the captive pack was similar to that of free-ranging packs in many respects. Polyadic (group) incidents of coalition support were also observed in a free-ranging pack. Patterns of coalition formation in the captive pack were related to rank. Most aggressive interactions involved high-ranking individuals (particularly the alpha, beta and third-ranking males) and coalitionary support tended to reinforce the existing hierarchy. However, there was at least one example of support influencing a successful rank challenge. Support was affected by potential risks and benefits, the latter including dominance through association and revolutionary alliances. An even stronger pattern overlaid associations between pack members: coalitions and resting associations were strongest between members of the same age–sex cohort, and may have enabled the eventual dominance of younger pack members over adults. Among adults, coalitionary associations were sometimes overridden by intersexual relationships. The results from this captive pack suggest that wild dogs are sensitive to differences in competitive ability. This information, in conjunction with strong affiliative bonds between littermates, is used to manoeuvre for position in the social hierarchy. It may also be important during dispersal, in encounters with other dispersing groups of the same sex. Although most features of the social structure of the captive pack were comparable to those of free-ranging packs, aspects such as the influence of relatedness on coalition formation still need to be explored. |
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Blackwell Publishing Ltd |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5249 |
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Tiefenbacher, S.; Lee, B.; Meyer, J.S.; Spealman, R.D. |
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Noninvasive technique for the repeated sampling of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys |
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2003 |
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American Journal of Primatology |
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Am. J. Primatol. |
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60 |
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2 |
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69-75 |
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saliva; cortisol; squirrel monkey; sampling technique; Hpa |
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The use of noninvasive measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function is of growing interest among preclinical and clinical investigators. This report describes a method for the repeated assessment of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) based on a saliva sampling technique previously developed for rhesus monkeys. Individually housed adult male squirrel monkeys were trained to chew on dental rope attached to a pole, from which saliva was extracted by centrifugation and analyzed for cortisol by radioimmunoassay (RIA). Eight of nine monkeys readily acquired the task, reliably providing adequate saliva samples for the assay. Salivary free cortisol levels were examined in these subjects under basal conditions and in response to two types of neuroendocrine challenge. Levels of salivary free cortisol showed relatively low intra- and interindividual variability, with mean individual morning levels ranging between 17.1 and 37.9 µg/dl. Squirrel monkeys demonstrated a consistent daily rhythm in salivary free cortisol ranging from a high of 27.4 ± 5.2 µg/dl (mean ± SEM) at 12 P.M. to a low of 7.5 ± 1.6 µg/dl at 6 P.M.. Intravenous (IV) challenges with 1 µg/kg ACTH, or 10 and 50 µg/kg CRF resulted in significant increases in salivary free cortisol. The described sampling technique provides a reliable and sensitive means for repeated measurement of HPA activity in unrestrained, awake squirrel monkeys. In addition, our findings illustrate several features of HPA system rhythmicity and reactivity using salivary cortisol instead of blood plasma or serum. Am. J. Primatol. 60:69–75, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc. |
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Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5573 |
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Dugatkin, L.A.; Earley, R.L. |
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Group fusion: the impact of winner, loser, and bystander effects on hierarchy formation in large groups |
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2003 |
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Behavioral Ecology |
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Behav. Ecol. |
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14 |
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3 |
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367-373 |
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We present the results of a series of computer simulations that examined the impact of winner, loser, and bystander effects on hierarchy formation in fused groups. These effects and their implications for hierarchy structure and aggressive interactions were first examined in small four-member groups. Subsequent to this, the two small groups were fused into a single larger group. Further interactions took place in this fused group, generating a new hierarchy. Our models demonstrate clearly that winner, loser, and bystander effects strongly influence both the structure and types of interactions that emerge from the fusion of smaller groups. Four conditions produced results in which the same general patterns were uncovered in pre- and postfusion groups: (1) winner effects alone, (2) bystander loser effects alone, (3) winner and bystander winner effects operating simultaneously, and (4) all four effects in play simultaneously. Outside this parameter space, hierarchy structure and the nature of aggressive interactions differed in pre- and postfusion groups. When only loser effects were in play, one of the two clear alphas from the prefused groups dropped in rank in the eight-member fused group. When bystander winner effects were in play, it was difficult to rank any of the eight individuals in the fused group, and players interacted almost exclusively with those that were not in their original four-member group. When loser and bystander loser effects operated simultaneously, two top-ranking individuals emerged in the fused groups, but the relative rank of the other players was difficult to assign. |
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10.1093/beheco/14.3.367 |
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519 |
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Wasilewski, A. |
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“Freundschaft” bei Huftieren? – Soziopositive Beziehungen zwischen nicht-verwandten artgleichen Herdenmitgliedern |
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http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~z-phylog/wisstaff/wasi-zus.htm
Zusammenfassung
* In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Bindungen, wie sie beim Menschen als 'Freund-schaften' bezeichnet werden und im Laufe der letzen 30 Jahre auch für nicht-menschliche Primaten zunehmend anerkannt worden sind, bei Nicht-Primaten nachgewiesen und erstmals quantitativ analysiert.
* für die gewählte Fragestellung sind Untersuchungen an Huftieren besonders geeignet, denn Ungulaten können wie Primaten eine komplexe soziale Organisation besitzen und sind zugleich phylogenetisch weit von ihnen entfernt. Bislang allerdings legt die Forschung zum Sozialverhalten von Ungulaten allgemein, und v.a. die von domestizierten Huftieren, ungerechtfertigt starkes Gewicht auf die agonistischen (sozionegativen) Komponenten wie z.B. Konflikte und die daraus resultierenden Dominanzhierarchien; sie berücksichtigt soziopositive Verhaltensweisen kaum.
So haben die bisherigen Hinweise auf die Existenz von 'Huftierfreundschaften' vor-wiegend anekdotischen Charakter. In den selteneren Arbeiten, die explizit sozio-positive Beziehungen innerhalb der Herden untersuchen, vermischen sich freund-schaftliche mit verwandtschaftlichen und sexuell motivierten Bindungen.
* Die Untersuchungen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden an je zwei Arten der beiden großen Huftierordnungen, nämlich Pferden und Eseln (Perissodactyla, Equidae) sowie Schafen und Rindern (Artiodactyla, Bovidae) durchgeführt. Es wurde ein vergleichender, individuenbasierter (und daher hochauflösender) Ansatz mit 'Langzeitcharakter' gewählt, der alle drei Ebenen der sozialen Organisation erfaßt: Assoziationen, Interaktionen und Muster der Bindungsstrukturen innerhalb sozialer Einheiten. Durch den systematischen, quantitativen, individuenbasierten und mit vier Tierarten relativ breit angelegten Ansatz kommt der vorliegenden Arbeit ein gewisser 'Pioniercharakter' zu, der v.a. im Bereich der Datenaufnahme- und -auswertungsmethoden ein mitunter beträchtliches Maß an Entwicklungsarbeit erforderte.
* Aus zwei Gründen wurde die Untersuchung an landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieren durchgeführt: Zum einen erleichtern die i.d.R. bekannten Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen eine Differenzierung zwischen 'Freundschaft' und Verwandtschaft. Zum anderen impliziert ein erfolgreicher Nachweis von 'Huftierfreundschaften' Konsequenzen für die Tierhaltungspraxis, denn ein soziales Umfeld, das den psychosozialen Bedürfnissen der Tiere Rechnung trägt, ist unabdingbare Voraussetzung für ihr Wohlbefinden (ethischer Tierschutz) und resultiert letztendlich in höherer Leistungsfähigkeit und damit ökonomischer Effizienz (anthropozentrischer Tierschutz).
Die Datenaufnahme im Freiland fand in England statt. Während die Rinder und Schafe unter kommerziellen Haltungsbedingungen lebten, konnten geeignete Pferde- und Eselherden nur in einem Horse Sanctuary (im weitesten Sinne vergleichbar mit einem Gnadenhof) gefunden werden.
* für die vorliegende Arbeit wurden von jeder der vier Tierarten, Rinder, Schafe, Esel und Pferde, zwei bis drei Herden mit je 11 bis 60 Mitgliedern (mittlere Herdengröße ca. 25) in zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Jahren (1996: 36 Wochen, 1997: 28 Wochen) untersucht. Die Rinderherde bestand aus vorwiegend subadulten, weiblichen Individuen; bei den übrigen drei Tierarten handelte es sich nahezu ausnahmslos um adulte Tiere. Die beiden Equidenarten lebten in gemischtgeschlechtlichen Herden, wobei alle männlichen Tiere kastriert waren (Wallache), während die Junggesellenherden der Schafe aus nicht kastrierten Tieren (Widdern) bestanden. In die vorgestellten Auswertungen gingen die Daten von 234 Tieren und ca. 1500 Untersuchungsstunden ein.
* Da selbst in der humanpsychologischen Freundschaftsforschung weder eine einheitliche Definition noch eine verbindliche Terminologie existiert, wurde zunächst eine allgemeingültige Definition des Freundschaftsbegriffs erarbeitet. Diese verzichtet bewußt auf funktionale Kriterien (sie beschränkt sich auf formale und inhaltliche) und enthält alle wesentlichen Charakteristika einschließlich solcher, die Freundschaften gegenüber anderen soziopositiven Beziehungen abgrenzen.
Freundschaft bezeichnet freiwillige und reziproke, nicht-sexuell motivierte, sozio-positive Bindungen zwischen nicht-verwandten Individuen. Sie ist primär dyadisch und besitzt für beide Beteiligten einen subjektiven Wert. Die Freund-schafts-beziehung ist durch positiven Affekt ('Sympathie') gekennzeichnet und äußert sich in einer beständigen interindividuellen Präferenz.
Diese Definition ist sowohl auf zwischen-menschliche als auch auf zwischen-tierliche und ggf. spezies-übergreifende Sozialbeziehungen anwendbar.
* Als Indikatorparameter für 'Freundschaften' wurden zum einen die räumliche Nähe (Nachbarschaftshäufigkeiten; Präferenzen reflektieren Assoziationen), zum anderen die Häufigkeiten verschiedener spontaner und experimentell induzierter soziopositiver Interaktionen herangezogen. Von den insgesamt vier erfaßten Interaktionen (soziale Fellpflege s.l., Körperkontakte beim Ruhen, Teilen von Futter und Verhaltensweisen des Dokumentierens s.l.) erwiesen sich aus unterschiedlichen Gründen lediglich Fellpflege und Futterteilen als geeignet.
* Während das spontane Verhalten bei allen Herden und in beiden Jahren erfaßt werden konnte, erlaubten die Haltungsbedingungen nur bei einigen Herden eine Ergänzung durch experimentelle Ansätze. Der Schwerpunkt der Arbeit liegt daher auf der Analyse des spontanen Verhaltens. Zur Datenaufnahme wurden verschiedene Sampling- und Recording-Methoden, i.d.R. in Kombination, verwandt (z.B. Scan Sampling für die Nachbarschaftsdaten, Ad libitum Sampling und Continuous Recording für die Interaktionsereignisse).
* Im Rahmen der Auswertung fand eine umfassende statistische Bearbeitung des Datenmaterials statt. Neben gängigeren uni- und bivariaten Verfahren (Binomial- und Chi-Quadrat-Anpassungstests, bivariate Korrelationen und Mantel-Tests) kamen v.a. multivariate Statistiken (Multidimensionale Skalierungen und hierarchische Cluster-analysen, partielle Korrelationen und multiple Mantel-Tests) zum Einsatz. Die Mantel-Tests (als Randomisierungsverfahren) waren aufgrund des dyadischen Charakters der Daten (Tier-Tier-Kombinationen), der nur in Form von Matrizen (d.h. nicht vollständig unabhängige Daten) erfaßt werden kann, zur Signifikanzprüfung notwendig. Darüber hinaus war die Entwicklung und Optimierung eines 'maßgeschneiderten' Auszählungsprogramms (NENESYS = NEarest NEighbour SYstematic Standardisation programme) erforderlich, die in interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit mit Informatikern und Mathematikwissenschaftlern stattfand.
* Im Ergebnisteil konnten Aussagen zu insgesamt sieben verschiedenen Aspekten von Huftierfreundschaften gemacht werden, die hauptsächlich aus Gründen der erforderlichen Prioritätensetzung unterschiedlich umfangreich und tiefgehend ausfielen:
1. Nachweis von Freundschaften bei Ungulaten
2. Quantifizierung der interindividueller Präferenzen
3. Situationsspezifität der Präferenzen
4. Dynamik und Dauer von Freundschaften
5. Asymmetrie innerhalb der Beziehungen
6. Freundschaften begünstigende Bedingungen
7. Funktionen von Tierfreundschaften
* Bei allen vier Tierarten zeigten sich sowohl bzgl. der räumlichen Nähe als auch im Hinblick auf die Partner bei soziopositiven Interaktionen deutliche interindividuelle ('persönliche') Präferenzen. In dem Bemühen um konservative und damit verläßliche Bewertungen wurden Nachbarpräferenzen allerdings erst dann als Assoziationen gewertet, wenn sie ein definiertes Beständigkeitsmaß überschritten. Da die Rahmenbedingungen der Untersuchung gewährleisteten, daß solche Assoziationen die Kriterien der Freundschafts-definition erfüllten, und andere Bindungsgrundlagen (Verwandtschaft und sexuelle Motivation = 'reproductive relationships') ausschlossen, ist der erstmals angestrebte generelle Nachweis von Freundschaften bei allen vier Arten von Huftieren als erfolgreich zu bewerten. Dieser Nachweis macht eine Ausweitung des Freundschafts-konzepts über die Primaten hinaus notwendig.
* Die Interaktionshäufigkeiten sind aufgrund ihres methodisch bedingten semi-quantitativen Charakters lediglich innerhalb der Herden vergleichbar.
Das Verwenden von Nachbarschaftshäufigkeiten als vollständig quantitativem Indikator bei allen zehn Herden ermöglicht hingegen einen unmittelbaren Vergleich zwischen den vier Tierarten, den Herden einer Art und den Individuen einer Herde. Aus Gründen des Umfangs beschränkt sich die Arbeit weitgehend auf den zwischenartlichen Vergleich.
Die Tierarten ließen sich – mit Ausnahme der Esel – im Hinblick auf die bei ihnen realisierten höchsten Assoziationsstärken, die maximalen Gruppengrößen und den Anteil gruppenzugehöriger Herdenmitglieder auf einem Wertegradienten anordnen. So nahmen die Kenngrößen der Tierarten in der Reihenfolge Rinder – Schafe – Pferde zu. über diese drei Arten hinweg bestand ein positiver Zusammenhang zwischen der Höhe der Assoziations-stärken, der Gruppengröße und dem Anteil gruppenzugehöriger Herdenmitglieder. Die Esel ließen sich nicht in dieses Schema einordnen, denn ihr Assoziationsgefüge war einerseits von dem geringsten Anteil gruppenzugehöriger Tiere und den kleinsten Gruppengrößen (ausschließlich Zweiergruppen) gekennzeichnet, andererseits zeichneten sich diese Zweiergruppen durch sehr hohe Bindungsstärken aus.
* Der Vergleich der interindividuellen Präferenzen in bis zu vier unterschiedlichen Situationen zeigte (neben gewissen individuellen Variationen) deutliche interspezifische Unterschiede. Diese waren mitunter zwischen den beiden Arten derselben Ordnung größer als zwischen Angehörigen verschiedener Ordnungen.
Bezüglich der Assoziationsstrukturen beim Grasen und Ruhen zeigten sich bei den vier untersuchten Arten zwei grundsätzliche Muster: Die Pferde- und Schafherden waren in beiden Aktivitätszuständen in distinkte, i.d.R. exklusive und autonome Gruppen strukturiert, und ihre Assoziationen stimmten in beiden Zuständen weitgehend überein (Aktivitätsunabhängigkeit). Im Gegensatz dazu besaßen die Esel und Rinder diffuse, unvollständige Assoziationsnetzwerke. Bei diesen Tierarten war nur ein weit geringerer Anteil der Assoziationen über beide Aktivitätszustände hinweg stabil.
Bei allen vier Tierarten konnten die Häufigkeiten sozialer Fellpflege s.l. (für Schafe gilt bislang, daß soziale Fellpflege bei ihnen nicht vorkommt, jedoch s.u.) mit den Nachbar-schafts-häufigkeiten beim Grasen und Ruhen verglichen werden; bei den beiden Equiden-arten kamen noch die Häufigkeiten des Futterteilens hinzu.
Während die Pferde ihre soziopositiven Interaktionen vollständig (Fellpflege) oder hauptsächlich (Futterteilen) auf Mitglieder ihrer eigenen Gruppe beschränkten, konnte bei Rindern nahezu keine übereinstimmung zwischen Präferenzen beim Grasen, beim Ruhen und bei der sozialen Fellpflege gefunden werden. Die Esel streuten ihre Präferenzen sehr deutlich, indem sie typischerweise zur Fellpflege Tiere aufsuchten, in deren Nähe sie sich sonst selten aufhielten. Beim Futterteilen zeigten sich zwei unterschiedliche Verhaltens-typen: Esel, die sowohl beim Grasen als auch beim Ruhen eng mit einem anderen Tier assoziiert waren, teilten mit diesem Partner auch besonders häufig, während die übrigen Esel sowohl mit ihren häufigsten Nachbarn als auch mit anderen Herdenmitgliedern teilten. Bei Schafen konnte wahrscheinlich gemacht werden, daß dem unidirektionalen Kopfreiben und dem hier erstmals beschriebenen reziproken Verweilen im Wangenkontakt zumindest die bindungsfürdernde und spannungsreduzierende Funktion der sozialen Fellpflege zukommen. Diese Verhaltensweisen fanden gehäuft, aber keines-wegs ausschließlich innerhalb der Assoziationsgruppen statt, die beim Grasen und Ruhen weitgehend übereinstimmten.
* Die vorliegende Arbeit enthält Hinweise darauf, daß möglicherweise verschiedene Interaktionsformen bzw. Assoziationen während bestimmter Aktivitätszustände zum Eingehen neuer Freundschaften, zum Festigen und Intensivieren bestehender Bindungen besonders geeignet sind und während der entsprechenden Phasen besonders häufig vorkommen. So scheint z.B. bei Pferden v.a. die soziale Fellpflege zur Initiation neuer Bindungen genutzt zu werden und gemeinsames Ruhen kürzlich eingegangene Beziehungen zu festigen.
Der Zeitrahmen der Untersuchung erlaubte es, bestehende Bindungen über maximal 18 Monate zu verfolgen. Die Bindungsdauern der Pferde und Schafe waren mit den Angaben anderer Autoren (für Herden mit einem sozialen Netzwerk aus Freundschaft und Verwandtschaft) vergleichbar, die der untersuchten Rinder fielen deutlich geringer aus, während sich die der Esel als ca. doppelt so lang wie der höchste vergleichbare Literaturwert erwiesen.
* Das Ausmaß der Asymmetrie innerhalb dyadischer Beziehungen wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit v.a. bei den unidirektionalen Fellpflegeverhaltensweisen der Boviden (Belecken der Rinder, Kopfreiben der Schafe) deutlich, die beide zudem entweder spontan oder nach Aufforderung stattfinden können.
* Bei der Suche nach Faktoren, die Freundschaften begünstigen, wurden einige statistisch abgesicherte Zusammenhänge zwischen Ähnlichkeiten bzgl. verschiedener individueller Eigenschaften und den Nachbarschaftshäufigkeiten gefunden. So erwies sich bei Rindern Gleichaltrigkeit als relevant, bei den Schafen der Besitz bzw. das Fehlen von Hörnern. Die in der Literatur wiederholt postulierte Präferenz bei Pferden für gleichfarbige (und ähnlich große) Freunde konnte nicht bestätigt werden.
Ob zusätzlich zum Ähnlichkeitsprinzip (“gleich und gleich gesellt sich gern”) auch das Komplementärprinzip (“Gegensätze ziehen sich an”) wirksam ist, läßt sich derzeit nicht entscheiden.
* Nach einer kritischen Beurteilung der verwendeten Methoden beschäftigt sich der anwendungsorientierte Teil der Diskussion zunächst mit dem Nutzen von Huftier-freundschaften. für einen (direkten) konkreten, praktischen Nutzen wurden kaum schlüssige Hinweise gefunden. Im Gegensatz dazu konnte die vorliegende Arbeit einen psychologischen Nutzen in Form von sozialer / emotionaler Unterstützung wahr-schein-lich machen:
Neben verschiedenen anekdotischen Hinweisen darauf, daß Situationen, die auf die Tiere verunsichernd wirken, das Eingehen bzw. Intensivieren von Freundschaften begünstigen können, ließ sich der Zusammenhang zwischen (annähernd) zeitgleichem Eintritt in eine neue Herde (unbekanntes soziales Umfeld) und beständigen Assoziationen (als ein Indikator für Freundschaft) bei Pferden und Schafen statistisch nachweisen. Insgesamt liegt der Schluß nahe, daß Huftierfreundschaften ein Gefühl von Sicherheit vermitteln. Die soziale / emotionale Unterstützung zwischen befreundeten Tieren wird dabei vorwiegend passiv gewährt, z.B. in Form von (sowohl wörtlichem wie metaphorischem) Beistand während Auseinandersetzungen des Freundes mit dritten und anschließender sozialer Fellpflege. Soziale Fellpflege mindert nachgewiesenermaßen physiologische Streßsymptome. Die in der vorliegenden Studie beobachteten äußerlichen Kennzeichen der Spannungs-Reduktion weisen zudem auf eine psychische Entspannung hin. Letztendlich wirkt sich die psychologische Unterstützung so auch auf das körperliche Wohlergehen (und ultimativ die biologische Fitness des betreffenden Tieres) aus und hat einen indirekten praktischer Nutzen.
* Alle größeren landwirtschaftlichen Nutztiere gehören den beiden hochgradig sozialen Huftierordnungen an. Der positive Nachweis von Freundschaften impliziert daher Konsequenzen für die Tierhaltungspraxis. Intensive Haltungsbedingungen sind u.a. durch hohe Tierdichten gekennzeichnet und verhindern i.d.R. das Eingehen bzw. Aufrechterhalten von Bindungen zwischen Verwandten, da Nutztiere üblicherweise in Gruppen ähnlich alter Tiere gehalten werden. Freundschaften werden v.a. zwischen Gleichaltrigen geknöpft und können bei Umgruppierungsentscheidungen mit relativ geringem Aufwand berücksichtigt werden. Die Arbeit gibt interessierten Tierhaltern konkrete Empfehlungen, wie sie bestehende Freundschaftsbindungen in ihren Herden mit geringem Zeit- und Arbeitsaufwand identifizieren können und welche Aspekte berücksichtigt werden sollten, wenn Teile bestehender Herden umgruppiert oder neue Herdenmitglieder integriert werden.
* Die verschiedenen Aspekte der Arbeit, die mitunter komplexen Wechselwirkungen untereinander sowie die Einflüsse der Haltungsbedingungen und die Konsequenzen für die Haltungs-praxis werden in einem 'Regelkreismodell' zusammengefaßt. Dieses Modell erlaubt u.a. das Aufstellen konkreter Hypothesen für weiterführende Fragestellungen. Ihnen nachzugehen, erscheint in vielerlei Hinsicht lohnend und erfolgversprechend.
* Der erfolgreiche Nachweis von Freundschaften bei Huftieren erfordert eine Ausweitung des Freundschaftskonzepts auch auf Nicht-Primaten und legt nahe, zukünftig auch andere soziale Wirbeltiere (z.B. Elephanten, Delphine, Reißtiere, aber auch Papageien) im Hinblick auf diesen Bindungstyp (eingehender) zu untersuchen.
* Diese Ausweitung des Konzepts ermöglicht eine Reinterpretation einiger bisher unbe-friedigend oder widersprüchlich klassifizierter Verhaltensweisen. So ist z.B. das bei Schafen gelegentlich erwähnte, ansonsten wenig beachtete, soziale Kopf- oder Hornreiben bislang nie in den Kontext der sozialen Fellpflege gestellt worden. Wegen seines Auftretens während Auseinandersetzungen interpretieren manche Autoren dieses Verhalten als ebenfalls agonistisch. Andere Autoren vermuten, daß die Voraugendrüse bei diesen Kontakten eine wichtige Rolle spielt und sehen darin eine 'respektanzeigende' Geste (Annahme des Individualgeruchs des dominanten Tieres).
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt erstmalig für Schafe Verweilen im Wangenkontakt. Diese Wangenkontakte besitzen einen eindeutig soziopositiven Charakter. Da sie häufig in Zusammenhang mit unidirektionalem Kopfreiben auftreten, wird als dritte Inter-pretation des Kopfreibeverhaltens die Einordnung in den Freundschaftskontext (als soziale Fellpflege s.l.) vorgeschlagen. Vertiefende Studien dazu werden u.a. Gegenstand des anschließenden Forschungsprojekts zur Evolution der Boviden sein. |
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Wasilewski A. |
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'Friendship' in ungulates? – Sociopositive relationships between non-related herd members of the same species |
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http://www.staff.uni-marburg.de/~z-phylog/wisstaff/wasi-sum.htm
Summary
* The quantitative study presented here demonstrates and verifies for ungulates the existence of social bonds, which in humans are termed 'friendships'. Whereas 'friendships' in non-human primates have become increasingly accepted over the past 30 years, their existence in non-primates remained as yet to be proved.
* The investigation was conducted on ungulates, because like primates the majority of their species are highly social; at the same time they are phylogenetically distant to the primates. To date, research into the social behaviour of ungulates in general, and of domestic species in particular, focuses predominantly on agonistic (socionegative) components, such as conflicts and resulting dominance hierarchies; sociopositive behaviours have been largely neglected.
As a consequence, previous evidence in favour of 'friendships' among ungulates remained largely anecdotal. Studies explicitly investigating sociopositive relationships among herd members are rare and typically confound bonds based on 'friendships' with reproductive relationships (kinship and sexually motivated bonds).
* Of each of the two large ungulate orders two species were investigated: horses and donkeys (Perissodactyla, Equidae) and sheep and cattle (Artiodactyla, Bovidae). The comparative, individual-based (and hence highly discriminative) longitudinal approach addressed all three levels of social organisation: associations, interactions and bond patterns within social units. Due to its systematic, quantitative, individual-based and comparatively broad design, this work may be considered to some degree a 'pioneering study'. As a consequence, a substantial amount of time and effort was required, particularly with respect to developing methods for the collection and analysis of data.
* Two reasons led to conducting this study on domestic ungulates: For farm animals information about who is related to whom is usually readily available, facilitating discrimination between friendship and kinship. Furthermore, successful proof of 'friendships' among ungulates would imply practical consequences for animal husbandry, since a social environment accommodating the animals' psychosocial needs is an essential prerequisite for their well-being (ethical reasons for animal protection) and ultimately results in higher productivity and hence economic efficiency (anthropocentric reasons for animal protection).
* Field research was conducted in England. Cattle and sheep were studied under commercial husbandry conditions, whereas appropriately large herds of horses and donkeys could only be found at a sanctuary.
* Two to three herds of each of the four species, namely cattle, sheep, donkeys and horses, comprising 11 to 60 members (average herd size approx. 25) were studied in two consecutive years (1996: 36 weeks, 1997: 28 weeks). The herds of cattle mainly consisted of subadult females, whereas those of the other species were predominantly composed of adults. Equids were kept in mixed-sex herds of mares and geldings (castrated males); the bachelor flocks of sheep consisted of 'intact' males (rams). The data presented here are based on 234 individuals and approximately 1500 hours of observation.
* Since even human social psychology provides neither a consistent definition nor a universally applicable terminology, it was necessary to establish a generally valid, precise definition of 'friendship'. Care was taken to exclude characteristics containing a bias as to the function of friendships (criteria were limited to those regarding contents and form). The definition contains all relevant criteria including those necessary for discrimination against alternative sociopositive relationships.
Friendship is defined as a voluntary, reciprocal, non-reproductive bond between individuals. It is primarily dyadic and carries a subjective value to both participants. Friendship is characterised by positive affect ('affection') and is expressed in a consistent inter-individual preference.
This definition is applicable to social relationships among both human and non-human animals, as well as interspecific relationships.
* Two types of parameters were used as indicators of 'friendship': frequency of spatial proximity (nearest neighbours; consistent neighbour preferences as a reflection of associations) and frequencies of different spontaneous as well as experimentally induced sociopositive interactions. For different reasons, of the four kinds of interactions (social grooming s.l., resting in physical contact, sharing limited feed, documenting behaviours s.l.) only grooming and feed sharing proved reliable.
* Aspects of the animals' spontaneous behaviour were recorded for all herds and in both years, whereas husbandry conditions demanded that complementary experiments be restricted to a few selected herds only. Data were collected using different Sampling and Recording Techniques, which were usually combined for maximum efficiency (e.g. Scan Sampling with nearest neighbour data, Ad libitum Sampling and Continuous Recording with sociopositive interactions).
* Data were subjected to an extensive statistical analysis. In addition to commonly used uni- and bivariate methods (Binomial and Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Tests, bivariate Correlations and Mantel Tests) a number of multivariate statistics were applied (Multidimensional Scaling, hierarchical Cluster Analysis, partial Correlations and multiple Mantel-Tests). Dyadic data are best represented as matrices; matrix data, however, pose the difficulty of partial interdependence, requiring Randomisation Tests (such as the one developed by Mantel) for their analysis. The complexity and amount of neighbour data required the development and optimisation of a 'customised' evaluation software (NENESYS = NEarest NEighbour SYstematic Standardisation programme) in close interdisciplinary cooperation with computer scientists and mathematicians.
* Seven different aspects of 'ungulate friendships' were addressed. The presented results differ in extent and depth.
1. Demonstration and verification of friendships in ungulates
2. Quantification of inter-individual preferences
3. Situation-specific aspects of these preferences
4. Dynamics and duration of friendships
5. Asymmetry within the relationships
6. Conditions enhancing friendships
7. Functions of animal friendships
* All four species expressed distinct inter-individual ('personal') preferences both for certain neighbours and for specific partners for sociopositive interactions. Endeavouring to present conservative and hence reliable assessments, only those neighbour preferences exceeding a threshold criterion were considered as associations. As the set-up of the study ensured that these associations met the criteria outlined in the definition of 'friendship' by excluding alternative bases for bonds (such as kinship and sexual motivation = reproductive relationships), the first explicit attempt at verifying the existence of friendship can be considered successful for all four species of ungulates examined. As a consequence, the concept of 'friendship' needs to be extended beyond the order of primates.
* Due to methodological reasons, the frequencies of interactions are only semi-quantitative and hence can be compared within herds only.
Frequencies of spatial proximity, on the other hand, provide a fully quantitative indicator, enabling direct comparisons across species, between different herds of the same species and between individuals. Due to the 'spatial limitations' of this thesis, it mainly focuses on inter-species comparisons.
With the exception of donkeys, the species could be arranged in sequence of increasing values of three parameters characterising their associative structure: maximum strength of association, maximum group size and proportion of herd members associated in distinct groups. Cattle showed the lowest values in all three parameters, sheep were intermediate, and horses reached the highest values. In these three species the strength of their associations was positively related to group size and the proportion of individuals associated in distinct groups. The donkeys did not fit this pattern: On the one hand, their association pattern comprised the lowest proportion of associated members and the smallest groups (pairs); on the other hand, these pairs exhibited very strong associations.
* Comparing inter-individual preferences across up to four different situations clear interspecific differences became evident. Some of these were greater between species of the same order than between orders.
The comparison of structures of association during grazing to those during resting, revealed two distinct patterns: Herds of horses and sheep flocks divided themselves into separate, usually mutually exclusive and independent groups and their associations corresponded greatly in both situations. Donkeys and cattle, on the other hand, formed diffuse, incomplete associative networks. The proportion of associations corresponding in both situations was far lower than in horses and sheep.
In all four species frequencies of social grooming s.l. (sheep are generally believed not to engage in social grooming, but see below) were compared to proximity frequencies during grazing and resting; and additionally to frequencies of feed sharing in the equid species.
Whereas horses restricted their sociopositive interactions entirely (grooming) or mostly (feed sharing) to members of their own group, cattle showed very little if any correspondence between partner preferences when grazing, resting and grooming. Donkeys spread their preferences widely across herd members, 'typically' approaching individuals for grooming with whom they were not associated during either grazing or resting. Considering their patterns of feed sharing, two different types of behaviour became evident: Pairs of donkeys that were closely associated during both grazing and resting, preferentially shared feed between them, whereas the remaining herd members did not discriminate between associates and non-associates when sharing feed. For sheep the findings of this study substantially increased the likelihood that unidirectional head rubbing and reciprocal cheek-to-cheek contact serve to strengthen 'personal' bonds and reduce tension – two functions generally attributed to social grooming. Both behaviours occurred mostly, but not exclusively, within groups of associated animals; these associations corresponded largely during grazing and resting.
* Results indicate that different types of social interactions and associations during different activities, respectively, may be particularly suited to initiate, consolidate and intensify friendships and occur particularly frequently during different phases of friendship formation and development. In horses, for instance, social grooming appears to some extent to be associated with the initiation of bonds, whereas resting in close proximity seems to strengthen newly formed relationships.
The longitudinal character of the study permitted to trace existing bonds over a maximum of 18 months. The duration of bonds in horses and sheep was comparable to findings of other authors for herds whose social networks resulted from a mixture of bonds based on both friendship and kinship; cattle relationships lasted shorter than described in the literature, while those in donkeys turned out to be approximately twice as long as had been documented to date.
* Aspects of asymmetry within dyadic relationships become particularly evident in grooming behaviours in bovids, which are typically performed unilaterally (social licking in cattle and head rubbing in sheep). Both behaviours can occur either spontaneously or as a consequence of solicitation.
* Addressing the question of factors potentially encouraging friendships, relationships between the degree of similarity with respect to some physical characteristics and nearest neighbour frequencies were found to be statistically significant. Cattle of similar age associated more closely, and horned rams preferred other individuals with horns as neighbours. The widely accepted preference of horses for associates of similar coat colour (and height) was not verified.
It remains to be decided whether (in addition to this preference for similar individuals) a preference based on complementary characteristics does exist.
* Following a critical review of the methodology employed, the benefits ungulates derive from friendships and possible applications for animal husbandry are discussed. Very little convincing evidence of a (direct) concrete, practical benefit was found. A psychological benefit in the form of social / emotional support, on the opposite, became highly probable.
Anecdotal evidence indicates, that situations causing a state of anxiety, may favour the initiation and intensification of friendships. Moreover, the study was able to statistically prove connection between (roughly) simultaneous introduction to a new herd (novel social environment) and persisting associations (as an indicator of friendships) in horses and sheep. These findings suggest that ungulate friendships provide a feeling of security. Social / emotional support among friends is predominantly given in a passive manner, e.g. in the form of – both literally and metaphorically – standing by a friend during conflicts with a third party, followed by social grooming with the friend. Social grooming has been shown by other authors to reduce physiological symptoms of stress. In addition, external signs of relaxation indicate a decrease in psychological tension. Hence, psychological support enhances the animal's physical health (and ultimately increases its biological fitness), providing an indirect practical benefit.
* Since all larger species of farm animals are highly social ungulates, the demonstration and verification of friendships implies consequences for husbandry practice. Intensive husbandry conditions are characterised by high animal densities, resulting in increased social stress, and grouping of animals of similar ages, which interferes with or prevents the formation and maintenance of bonds between kin. As friendships develop preferentially between individuals of similar age, they can be accommodated with relatively little effort when deciding about regrouping. The study presented here provides explicit recommendations to interested stockpersons on how to expeditiously and efficiently identify existing friendships and on which aspects to take into account when regrouping established herds or introducing new members.
* The different aspects of the study and their complex and often interwoven interrelations are condensed into a 'Regelkreismodell'. This model facilitates the generation of precise hypotheses for future research. Further detailed investigation into a variety of questions raised by this study seems in many ways promising and rewarding.
* The successful demonstration and verification of the existence of friendship in ungulates requires an extension of the 'concept of friendship' beyond the order of primates and encourages more detailed research into the bonding behaviour of other social vertebrates (e.g. elephants, dolphins, carnivores and also parrots).
* This extension demands a reinterpretation of some behaviours which so far have been unsatisfactorily or controversially classified, such as social head or horn rubbing in sheep, which has been mentioned occasionally, but received very little attention in the literature. Due to its occurrence during aggressive interactions, some authors consider horn or head rubbing to be agonistic. Others suppose the preorbital gland to play a significant role in this type of interaction and interpret head or horn rubbing as a 'respectful gesture' (adopting the dominant sheep's individual scent).
The study presents the first description of cheek-to-cheek contact in sheep. These cheek contacts are unequivocally sociopositive in nature. Since they are frequently associated with head rubbing, a third interpretation of head rubbing behaviour is offered by classifying both behaviours within the context of social grooming s.l.. More detailed examinations of these behaviours will be conducted as part of a research project into the evolution of the bovidae. |
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University of Marburg |
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Bachmann, I.; Audige, L.; Stauffacher, M. |
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Risk factors associated with behavioural disorders of crib-biting, weaving and box-walking in Swiss horses |
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2003 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
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Equine Vet J |
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158-163 |
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Animal Husbandry/*methods; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Confounding Factors (Epidemiology); Data Collection; Female; Horse Diseases/epidemiology/*etiology/prevention & control; Horses; *Housing, Animal; Male; Mental Disorders/epidemiology/etiology/prevention & control/*veterinary; Prevalence; Regression Analysis; Risk Factors; *Stereotyped Behavior; Switzerland/epidemiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Studies on the prevalence of behavioural disorders in horses and on associated risk factors have revealed inconsistent results. There are many studies on the neuropharmacological, surgical or mechanical therapy of stereotypies, but little is known about their causation. OBJECTIVES: To explore risk factors associated with the occurrence of behavioural disorders in horses. METHODS: A sample of horse owners, selected randomly and representative for Switzerland, was contacted in a postal survey. Answers were provided for 622 stables (response rate 35.2%). Individual data of 2,341 horses were examined with path analysis (multivariable linear and logistic regression), and adjustment made for possible confounding effects due to age and breed. RESULTS: Out of 60 possible risk factors, 11 were associated with the outcome at the univariable level (null-hypothesis path model) and 3 factors remained after the backward logistic regression procedure. Mature Warmbloods and Thoroughbreds, assessed by the owners to be reactive, fed 4 times a day and without daily pasture, had increased odds of displaying crib-biting, weaving and box-walking. Furthermore, indirect associations of 5 factors with the outcome were identified. CONCLUSIONS: The final logistic regression model of risk factors leads to the hypotheses that causal prevention of stereotypic behaviours should be based upon housing and management conditions which allow tactile contact with other horses (e.g. mutual grooming), daily free movement (paddock or pasture), as well as the provision of high amounts of roughage but of little or no concentrates. POTENTIAL CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is one of the aims of population medicine to prevent the development of behavioural disorders. Further research is needed to test the concluding hypotheses in experimental studies or to verify them in the context of similar observational studies. |
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Institute of Animal Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), LFW B55. 1, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland |
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Reader, S.M. |
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Innovation and social learning: individual variation and brain evolution |
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2003 |
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Animal Biology (formerly Netherlands Journal of Zoology) |
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Anim. Biol. Leiden. |
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This paper reviews behavioural, neurological and cognitive correlates of innovation at the individual, population and species level, focusing on birds and primates. Innovation, new or modified learned behaviour not previously found in the population, is the first stage in many instances of cultural transmission and may play an important role in the lives of animals with generalist or opportunistic lifestyles. Within-species, innovation is associated with low neophobia, high neophilia, and with high social learning propensities. Indices of innovatory propensities can be calculated for taxonomic groups by counting the frequency of reports of innovation in published literature. These innovation rate data provide a useful comparative measure for studies of behavioural flexibility and cognition. Innovation rate is positively correlated with the relative size of association areas in the brain, namely the hyperstriatum ventrale and neostriatum in birds, and the neocortex and striatum in primates. Innovation rate is also positively correlated with the reported variety of tool use, as well as interspecific differences in learning. Current evidence thus suggests similar patterns of cognitive evolution in primates and birds. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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Bolhuis, J.J. |
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Bird brains and behaviour: perception, cognition and production |
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formerly Netherlands Journal of Zoology |
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3104 |
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Wittig, R.M.; Boesch, C. |
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The Choice of Post-conflict Interactions in Wild Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) |
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2003 |
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Behaviour |
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Behaviour |
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140 |
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11 |
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1527-1559 |
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Some costs of conflicts remain after an aggressive interaction has been terminated. Postconflict management in social living animals can reduce those costs by means of a variety of interactions implemented after aggression (e.g.reconciliation, consolation, redirected aggression). Each post-conflict interaction (PCI) provides different advantages and disadvantages, although the functions may sometimes overlap. Individuals can therefore choose a PCI to achieve the most favourable outcome within a given conflict situation. We examined 876 dyadic aggressive interactions among 18 wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) of both sexes in the Tai National Park, Céte d'Ivoire. We investigated which conflict-condition led to which type of PCI and related the choice of PCI to its advantages and disadvantages. Tai chimpanzees used reconciliation to resolve conflicts among high value partners and when approaching the former opponent was unlikely to entail further aggression. Consolation seemed to substitute for reconciliation, when were opponents low value partners or approaching the former opponent was too risky, such as when further aggression was likely. Tai chimpanzees renewed aggression after undecided conflicts and when losers were unexpected. They used redirected aggression after long conflicts, possibly because friendly PCIs were likely to fail. However, Tai chimpanzees continued with business as usual when conflicts were very short, and they avoided further interactions when the accessibility of the resource was unlimited. Tai chimpanzees appeared to follow a clear-cut evaluation process as they seemed to weigh advantages against disadvantages for the appropriate choice of PCI. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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Van Doorn G.S.; Hengeveld G.M.; Weissing F.J. |
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The Evolution of Social Dominance II: Multi-Player Models |
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2003 |
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Behavior |
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Behavior |
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140 |
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10 |
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1333-1358 |
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Abstract |
The social hierarchies observed in natural systems often show a high degree of transitivity. Transitive hierarchies do not only require rank differentiation within pairs of individuals but also a higher level ordering of relations within the group. Several authors have suggested that the formation of linear hierarchies at the group level is an emergent property of individual behavioural rules, referred to as winner and loser effects. Winner and loser effects occur if winners of previous conflicts are more likely to escalate the current conflict, whereas the losers of previous conflicts are less likely to do so. According to this idea, an individual's position in a hierarchy may not necessarily reflect its fighting ability, but may rather result from arbitrary historical asymmetries, in particular the history of victories and defeats. However, if this is the case, it is difficult to explain from an evolutionary perspective why a low ranking individual should accept its subordinate status. Here we present a game theoretical model to investigate whether winner and loser effects giving rise to transitive hierarchies can evolve and under which conditions they are evolutionarily stable. The main version of the model focuses on an extreme case in which there are no intrinsic differences in fighting ability between individuals. The only asymmetries that may arise between individuals are generated by the outcome of previous conflicts. We show that, at evolutionary equilibrium, these asymmetries can be utilized for conventional conflict resolution. Several evolutionarily stable strategies are based on winner and loser effects and these strategies give rise to transitive hierarchies. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5106 |
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