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Merkies, K.; McKechnie, M.J.; Zakrajsek, E. |
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Behavioural and physiological responses of therapy horses to mentally traumatized humans |
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2018 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Equine-assisted therapy; Ptsd; Horse; Behaviour; Cortisol; Heart rate |
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The benefits to humans of equine-assisted therapy (EAT) have been well-researched, however few studies have analyzed the effects on the horse. Understanding how differing mental states of humans affect the behaviour and response of the horse can assist in providing optimal outcomes for both horse and human. Four humans clinically diagnosed and under care of a psychotherapist for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) were matched physically to four neurotypical control humans and individually subjected to each of 17 therapy horses loose in a round pen. A professional acting coach instructed the control humans in replicating the physical movements of their paired PTSD individual. Both horses and humans were equipped with a heart rate (HR) monitor recording HR every 5secs. Saliva samples were collected from each horse 30 min before and 30 min after each trial to analyze cortisol concentrations. Each trial consisted of 5 min of baseline observation of the horse alone in the round pen after which the human entered the round pen for 2 min, followed by an additional 5 min of the horse alone. Behavioural observations indicative of stress in the horse (gait, head height, ear orientation, body orientation, distance from the human, latency of approach to the human, vocalizations, and chewing) were retrospectively collected from video recordings of each trial and analyzed using a repeated measures GLIMMIX with Tukey's multiple comparisons for differences between treatments and time periods. Horses moved slower (p < 0.0001), carried their head lower (p < 0.0001), vocalized less (p < 0.0001), and chewed less (p < 0.0001) when any human was present with them in the round pen. Horse HR increased in the presence of the PTSD humans, even after the PTSD human left the pen (p < 0.0001). Since two of the PTSD/control human pairs were experienced with horses and two were not, a post-hoc analysis showed that horses approached quicker (p < 0.016) and stood closer (p < 0.0082) to humans who were experienced with horses. Horse HR was lower when with inexperienced humans (p < 0.0001) whereas inexperienced human HR was higher (p < 0.0001). Horse salivary cortisol did not differ between exposure to PTSD and control humans (p > 0.32). Overall, behavioural and physiological responses of horses to humans are more pronounced based on human experience with horses than whether the human is diagnosed with a mental disorder. This may be a reflection of a directness of movement associated with humans who are experienced with horses that makes the horse more attentive. It appears that horses respond more to physical cues from the human rather than emotional cues. This knowledge is important in tailoring therapy programs and justifying horse responses when interacting with a patient in a therapy setting. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6385 |
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McDonnell, S.M.; Poulin, A. |
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Equid play ethogram |
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2002 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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263-290 |
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Equine; Pony; Zebra; Donkey; Przewalski horse; Play behavior; Ethogram |
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An ethogram of play behavior among equids was developed. Several key English-language studies on equids were reviewed to derive a preliminary inventory of specific behaviors to be included in the ethogram. Our primary observations were based on a herd of semi-feral Shetland-type ponies kept at New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA. Greater than 100 h of direct observation and photo-documentation focused specifically on play in order to identify play behaviors to be added to the preliminary inventory and to obtain detailed descriptions of each behavior. Additionally, these observations were supplemented with photographs obtained during several years of observational study of this herd for other purposes, and with the cumulative equid observational experience and study notes of the principal investigator with other equid species. An initial draft was sent out to 18 equine behavior colleagues for review. A total of 38 individual behaviors classified into four distinct categories were included in the ethogram. These included object play (14 entries), play sexual behavior (3 entries), locomotor play (14 entries) and play fighting (7 entries). All of the behaviors catalogued from direct observation of the herd were also found in the equid literature. The resulting ethogram offers a practical tool as a field guide or reference for quantitative research and other studies of equid play behavior as well as for teaching of equid behavior. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1987 |
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Momozawa, Y.; Ono, T.; Sato, F.; Kikusui, T.; Takeuchi, Y.; Mori, Y.; Kusunose, R. |
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Assessment of equine temperament by a questionnaire survey to caretakers and evaluation of its reliability by simultaneous behavior test |
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Journal Article |
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2003 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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84 |
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2 |
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127-138 |
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Anxiety; Heart rate; Horse; Questionnaire; Temperament |
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We carried out a questionnaire survey of the caretakers, using 86 riding horses kept in the Equestrian Park, Tokyo (Japan Racing Association). The questionnaire survey used a 5-point scale and a 3-point scale to assess several caretakers' impressions of each horse's temperament, on the basis of the norm and the horse's tendencies in ordinary care and daily training. Factor analysis of the temperament scores obtained with the 5-point scale questionnaire revealed three mutually independent factors that we named “anxiety”, “novelty seeking” and “understanding”. In order to verify the reliability of this questionnaire survey, a balloon reactivity test was conducted using the same horses. Each horse was introduced into an unfamiliar indoor arena (7 mx12.5 mx3 m) in the center of which two balloons slowly revolved. The horses' responses were assessed by recording changes in their behavior and heart rate (HR) during the 5 min experimental period. By comparing the questionnaire survey and the balloon reactivity test, it was found that the horses evaluated as highly anxious by the caretakers tended to show greater HR increases and defecate more often during exposure to the balloon stimuli than did the other horses. Additionally, the horses assessed by caretakers to have problems with ordinary care and/or training showed greater increases of HR and frequency of defecation in the balloon reactivity test, and the horses assessed as having `a long adaptation time to unfamiliar objects' were found to be unwilling to touch the balloons. Thus, the horses' behavior during the balloon reactivity test was highly consistent with their temperament as determined by the questionnaire. These results suggest that the questionnaire survey would be an effective means to assess equine temperamental traits, especially those related to anxiety. |
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1984 |
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Klingel, H. |
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Sozial Organisation und Verhaltensweisen von Hartmann- und Bergzebras (Equus zebra hartmannae und E. z. zebra). |
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1968 |
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Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie |
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Z. Tierpsychol. |
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25 |
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76-88 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2163 |
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Ben-Shahar, R. |
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Habitat classification in relation to movements and densities of ungulates in a semi-arid savanna |
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1995 |
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African Journal of Ecology |
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Afr. J. Ecol. |
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33 |
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50-63 |
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Habitat types were classified in a semi-arid nature reserve in South Africa in order to assess the spatial requirements of resident ungulates, namely zebra, wildebeest and impala. Multivariate analyses showed patterns of soil factors and plant species associations that corresponded with variations of local geological formations and the abundance of plants. The response of ungulates to habitats of different degrees of complexity in terms of soils and plant species associations was examined on the basis of annual occurrence. New habitat types were described through merging or subdividing the existing classification. New habitat categories which corresponded with high occurrences of ungulates provided better indications of the resource requirements for large herbivores. Wildebeest were restricted in their habitat requirements and were characterized by high seasonal densities in bottom lands, particularly during the late wet period. There was a considerable overlap in the preference of habitat types between wildebeest and zebra although zebra were aggregated during longer periods within the dolerite formation. Impala had a consistent annual preference for the granite formation where seepage lines and bottom lands were inhabited seasonally by large herd concentrations.
Résumé
On a classifié les types d'habitat dans une réserve naturelle semiaride d'Afrique du Sud, dans le but d'évaluer les exigences spatiales des ongulés qui y vivent, c'est à dire les zèbres, les gnous et les impalas. Des analyses multivariées ont révélé des schémas pour les facteurs du sol et pour les associations d'espèces végétales qui correspondent aux variations des formations géologiques locales et à l'abon-dance des plantes. On a examiné la réponse des ongulés à des habitats de complexité différente en termes de sols et d'associations d'espéces végétales, d'après leur présence annuelle. On a décrit de nouveaux types d'habitats en fusionnant ou en subdivisant la classification existante. Les nouvelles catégories d'habitats qui correspondaient à des présences abondantes d'ongulés ont fourni de meilleures indications sur les ressources exigées par les grands herbivores. Les gnous se limitaient aux endroits qui répondaient a leurs exigences et se caractérisaient par de hautes densités saisonnières dans les régions basses, spécialement pendant la dernière saison des pluies. Il y avait un recouvrement considérable des types d'habitats préferés par les gnous et les zébres, encore que les zébres se rassemblent plus longtemps dans la formation doléritique. Les impalas marquent une préférence annuelle constante pour la formation granitique où les sources et les terres basses sont occupées de façon saisonnière par des hardes très concentrées. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2227 |
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King, S.R.B.; Gurnell, J. |
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Behavioural ecology of Przewalski horses (Equus przewalskii) reintroduced to Hustai National Park, Mongolia |
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2002 |
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Queen Mary, University of London |
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Ph.D. thesis |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2320 |
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Call J |
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Inferences about the location of food in the great apes (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, and Pongo pygmaeus) |
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2004 |
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Journal of Comparative Psychology |
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J. Comp. Psychol. |
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118 |
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2 |
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232 |
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Bonobos (Pan paniscus; n = 4), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes; n = 12), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla; n = 8), and orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus; n = 6) were presented with 2 cups (1 baited) and given visual or auditory information about their contents. Visual information consisted of letting subjects look inside the cups. Auditory information consisted of shaking the cup so that the baited cup produced a rattling sound. Subjects correctly selected the baited cup both when they saw or heard the food. Nine individuals were above chance in both visual and auditory conditions. More important, subjects as a group selected the baited cup when only the empty cup was either shown or shaken, which means that subjects chose correctly without having seen or heard the food (i.e., inference by exclusion). Control tests showed that subjects were not more attracted to noisy cups, avoided shaken noiseless cups, or learned to use auditory information as a cue during the study. It is concluded that subjects understood that the food caused the noise, not simply that the noise was associated with the food. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) |
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food location; inference ; apes;auditory information;visual information |
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yes |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3057 |
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Custance, D.; Whiten, A.; Sambrook, T.; Galdikas, B. |
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Testing for social learning in the “artificial fruit” processing of wildborn orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), Tanjung Puting, Indonesia |
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2001 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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4 |
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3 |
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305-313 |
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Social learning about actions, objects and sequencing was investigated in a group of 14 wildborn orangutans (four adult females and ten 3- to 5-year-old juveniles). Human models showed alternative methods and sequences for dismantling an artificial fruit to groups of participants matched by gender and age. Each participant received three to six 2-min trials in which they were given access to the artificial fruit for manipulation. Independent coders, who were unaware of which method each participant had seen, gave confidence ratings and collected action frequencies from watching video recordings of the experimental trials. No significant differences were found between groups in terms of the coders' confidence ratings, the action frequencies or the sequence of manipulations. These negative results may at least partly reflect the immaturity of a large proportion of the participants. A positive correlation was found between age and the degree of matching to the method shown. Although none of the juveniles succeeded in opening the “fruit”, two out of the four adults did so and they also seemed to match more closely the sequence of elements touched over successive trials. The results are compared with similar data previously collected from human children, chimpanzees, gorillas, capuchin monkeys and common marmosets. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3370 |
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Reader, S.M. |
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Innovation and social learning: individual variation and brain evolution |
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2003 |
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Animal Biology (formerly Netherlands Journal of Zoology) |
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Anim. Biol. Leiden. |
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53 |
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2 |
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147-158 |
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This paper reviews behavioural, neurological and cognitive correlates of innovation at the individual, population and species level, focusing on birds and primates. Innovation, new or modified learned behaviour not previously found in the population, is the first stage in many instances of cultural transmission and may play an important role in the lives of animals with generalist or opportunistic lifestyles. Within-species, innovation is associated with low neophobia, high neophilia, and with high social learning propensities. Indices of innovatory propensities can be calculated for taxonomic groups by counting the frequency of reports of innovation in published literature. These innovation rate data provide a useful comparative measure for studies of behavioural flexibility and cognition. Innovation rate is positively correlated with the relative size of association areas in the brain, namely the hyperstriatum ventrale and neostriatum in birds, and the neocortex and striatum in primates. Innovation rate is also positively correlated with the reported variety of tool use, as well as interspecific differences in learning. Current evidence thus suggests similar patterns of cognitive evolution in primates and birds. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3395 |
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Gardner, P. |
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The responses of horses in a discrimination problem |
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1937 |
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Journal-of-Comparative-Psychology |
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J Comp Psychol |
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62 horses were trained to obtain food from the one of three boxes which was covered with a black cloth. The position of the box varied from trial to trial in a random order. Learning was apparently in terms of vision, rather than smell. Many errors were due to the line of direction of the horse's movement as it entered the experimental situation. For all animals the learning curve dropped rapidly during the first few trials. There was slightly more rapid learning in younger horses than in older ones. No sex differences were apparent. Percherons made fewer errors than Belgians. Draft horses showed a slight superiority over military and farm horses. The statistical reliability of these differences is not reported. Good retention was evidenced after a period of several months. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3613 |
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