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	Author	Stoinski, T.S.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Social learning by orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) in a simulated food-processing task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	117	Issue	3	Pages	272-282
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Feeding Behavior; Female; Imitative Behavior; Male; Pongo pygmaeus/psychology; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance; Social Environment; Species Specificity; *Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	Increasing evidence for behavioral differences between populations of primates has created a resurgence of interest in examining mechanisms of information transfer between individuals. The authors examined the social transmission of information in 15 captive orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) using a simulated food-processing task. Experimental subjects were shown 1 of 2 methods for removing a suite of defenses on an “artificial fruit.” Control subjects were given no prior exposure before interacting with the fruit. Observing a model provided a functional advantage in the task, as significantly more experimental than control subjects opened the fruit. Within the experimental groups, the authors found a trend toward differences in the actual behaviors used to remove 1 of the defenses. Results support observations from the wild implying horizontal transfer of information in orangutans and show that a number of social learning processes are likely to be involved in the transfer of knowledge in this species.
	Address	Department of Primate Research, Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA. tstoinski@zooatlanta.org
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14498803			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	737
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Stoinski, T.S.; Wrate, J.L.; Ure, N.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Imitative learning by captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a simulated food-processing task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	115	Issue	3	Pages	272-281
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Discrimination Learning; Feeding Behavior/physiology; Gorilla gorilla; *Imitative Behavior; Social Behavior
	Abstract	Although field studies have suggested the existence of cultural transmission of foraging techniques in primates, identification of transmission mechanisms has remained elusive. To test experimentally for evidence of imitation in the current study, we exposed gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to an artificial fruit foraging task designed by A. Whiten and D. M. Custance (1996). Gorillas (n=6) watched a human model remove a series of 3 defenses around a fruit. Each of the defenses was removed using 1 of 2 alternative techniques. Subsequent video analysis of gorillas' behavior showed a significant tendency to copy the observed technique on 1 of the individual defenses and the direction of removal on another defense. This is the first statistically reliable evidence of imitation in gorillas. Sequence of defense removal was not replicated. The gorillas' responses were most similar to those of chimpanzees.
	Address	TECHlab, Zoo Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA. stoinskit@mindspring.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11594496			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	738
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	Author	Whiten, A.; McGrew, W.C.
	Title	Is this the first portrayal of tool use by a chimp?			Type
	Year	2001	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	409	Issue	6816	Pages	12
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Pan troglodytes/physiology; Philately
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-0836	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11343083			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	739
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.; Boesch, C.
	Title	The cultures of chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Scientific American	Abbreviated Journal	Sci Am
	Volume	284	Issue	1	Pages	60-67
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Culture; Feeding Behavior; Grooming; Hominidae; Humans; Pan troglodytes/physiology
	Abstract
	Address	University of St. Andrews
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0036-8733	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11132425			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	740
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Castles, D.L.; Whiten, A.; Aureli, F.
	Title	Social anxiety, relationships and self-directed behaviour among wild female olive baboons			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	58	Issue	6	Pages	1207-1215
	Keywords
	Abstract	Self-directed behaviour (SDB) can be used as a behavioural indicator of stress and anxiety in nonhuman primates (Maestripieri et al. 1992, Animal Behaviour, 44, 967-979). We investigated the effect of nearest neighbours' relative dominance status on the SDB of sexually mature female olive baboons, Papio anubis. When the animal nearest to (within 5 m of) a female was a dominant individual, SDB rates (a combined measure of self-scratching, self-grooming, self-touching, body shaking and yawning) increased by ca. 40% over those observed when the nearest neighbour was a subordinate. The results indicate that (1) SDB can be used as a measure of uncertainty during the social interactions of cercopithecine primates and (2) as there was considerable variation in SDB response according to the nature of the dominant individual, SDB can be used to assess relationship security (i.e. the perceived predictability of a relationship for one partner). Finally, in combination with measures of affiliation rate, SDB may provide insight into relationship value.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	745
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	Author	Whiten, A.; Goodall, J.; McGrew, W.C.; Nishida, T.; Reynolds, V.; Sugiyama, Y.; Tutin, C.E.; Wrangham, R.W.; Boesch, C.
	Title	Cultures in chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	399	Issue	6737	Pages	682-685
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Culture; Humans; Pan troglodytes/*physiology; Species Specificity
	Abstract	As an increasing number of field studies of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have achieved long-term status across Africa, differences in the behavioural repertoires described have become apparent that suggest there is significant cultural variation. Here we present a systematic synthesis of this information from the seven most long-term studies, which together have accumulated 151 years of chimpanzee observation. This comprehensive analysis reveals patterns of variation that are far more extensive than have previously been documented for any animal species except humans. We find that 39 different behaviour patterns, including tool usage, grooming and courtship behaviours, are customary or habitual in some communities but are absent in others where ecological explanations have been discounted. Among mammalian and avian species, cultural variation has previously been identified only for single behaviour patterns, such as the local dialects of song-birds. The extensive, multiple variations now documented for chimpanzees are thus without parallel. Moreover, the combined repertoire of these behaviour patterns in each chimpanzee community is itself highly distinctive, a phenomenon characteristic of human cultures but previously unrecognised in non-human species.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-0836	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10385119			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	742
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.
	Title	Imitation of the sequential structure of actions by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1998	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	112	Issue	3	Pages	270-281
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior/physiology; Ceremonial Behavior; Exploratory Behavior/physiology; Female; Fruit; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Learning/physiology; Male; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Practice (Psychology); Problem Solving/*physiology
	Abstract	Imitation was studied experimentally by allowing chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to observe alternative patterns of actions for opening a specially designed “artificial fruit.” Like problematic foods primates deal with naturally, with the test fruit several defenses had to be removed to gain access to an edible core, but the sequential order and method of defense removal could be systematically varied. Each subject repeatedly observed 1 of 2 alternative techniques for removing each defense and 1 of 2 alternative sequential patterns of defense removal. Imitation of sequential organization emerged after repeated cycles of demonstration and attempts at opening the fruit. Imitation in chimpanzees may thus have some power to produce cultural convergence, counter to the supposition that individual learning processes corrupt copied actions. Imitation of sequential organization was accompanied by imitation of some aspects of the techniques that made up the sequence.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. a.whiten@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:9770315			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	743
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.; Custance, D.M.; Gomez, J.C.; Teixidor, P.; Bard, K.A.
	Title	Imitative learning of artificial fruit processing in children (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1996	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	110	Issue	1	Pages	3-14
	Keywords	Animals; Child, Preschool; Discrimination Learning; Female; Food Preferences/psychology; Fruit; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Male; Mental Recall; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Social Environment
	Abstract	Observational learning in chimpanzees and young children was investigated using an artificial fruit designed as an analog of natural foraging problems faced by primates. Each of 3 principal components could be removed in 2 alternative ways, demonstration of only one of which was watched by each subject. This permitted subsequent imitation by subjects to be distinguished from stimulus enhancement. Children aged 2-4 years evidenced imitation for 2 components, but also achieved demonstrated outcomes through their own techniques. Chimpanzees relied even more on their own techniques, but they did imitate elements of 1 component of the task. To our knowledge, this is the first experimental evidence of chimpanzee imitation in a functional task designed to simulate foraging behavior hypothesized to be transmitted culturally in the wild.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. aw2@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:8851548			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	744
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Barton, R.A.; Byrne, R.W.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Ecology, feeding competition and social structure in baboons			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1996	Publication	Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
	Volume	38	Issue	5	Pages	321-329
	Keywords	Key words Ecology – Competition – Group size – Baboons
	Abstract	Predictions of the model of van Schaik (1989) of female-bonding in primates are tested by systematically comparing the ecology, level of within-group contest competition for food (WGC), and patterns of social behaviour found in two contrasting baboon populations. Significant differences were found in food distribution (percentage of the diet from clumped sources), feeding supplant rates and grooming patterns. In accord with the model, the tendencies of females to affiliate and form coalitions with one another, and to be philopatric, were strongest where ecological conditions promoted WGC. Group fission in the population with strong WGC was “horizontal” with respect to female dominance rank, and associated with female-female aggression during a period of elevated feeding competition. In contrast, where WGC was low, females' grooming was focused on adult males rather than other females. Recent evidence suggests that group fission here is initiated by males, tends to result in the formation of one-male groups, and is not related to feeding competition but to male-male competition for mates. An ecological model of baboon social structure is presented which incorporates the effects of female-female competition, male-male competition, and predation pressure. The model potentially accounts for wide variability in group size, group structure and social relationships within the genus Papio. Socio-ecological convergence between common baboons and hamadryas baboons, however, may be limited in some respects by phylogenetic inertia.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	807
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.
	Title	Social complexity and social intelligence			Type	Conference Article
	Year	2000	Publication	Novartis Foundation Symposium	Abbreviated Journal	Novartis Found Symp
	Volume	233	Issue		Pages	185-96; discussion 196-201
	Keywords	Animals; Brain/anatomy & histology/physiology; Humans; Intelligence/physiology; Learning; Models, Psychological; Primates; *Social Behavior; Social Problems
	Abstract	When we talk of the 'nature of intelligence', or any other attribute, we may be referring to its essential structure, or to its place in nature, particularly the function it has evolved to serve. Here I examine both, from the perspective of the evolution of intelligence in primates. Over the last 20 years, the Social (or 'Machiavellian') Intelligence Hypothesis has gained empirical support. Its core claim is that the intelligence of primates is primarily an adaptation to the special complexities of primate social life. In addition to this hypothesis about the function of intellect, a secondary claim is that the very structure of intelligence has been moulded to be 'social' in character, an idea that presents a challenge to orthodox views of intelligence as a general-purpose capacity. I shall outline the principal components of social intelligence and the environment of social complexity it engages with. This raises the question of whether domain specificity is an appropriate characterization of social intelligence and its subcomponents, like theory of mind. As a counter-argument to such specificity I consider the hypothesis that great apes exhibit a cluster of advanced cognitive abilities that rest on a shared capacity for second-order mental representation.
	Address	School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9JU, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1528-2511	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11276903			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	2084
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