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	Author	Whiten, A.; Horner, V.; de Waal, F.B.M.
	Title	Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	437	Issue	7059	Pages	737-740
	Keywords	Aging/physiology; Animals; Culture; Feeding Behavior/physiology; Female; Pan troglodytes/physiology/psychology; *Social Conformity; Technology; Time Factors
	Abstract	Rich circumstantial evidence suggests that the extensive behavioural diversity recorded in wild great apes reflects a complexity of cultural variation unmatched by species other than our own. However, the capacity for cultural transmission assumed by this interpretation has remained difficult to test rigorously in the field, where the scope for controlled experimentation is limited. Here we show that experimentally introduced technologies will spread within different ape communities. Unobserved by group mates, we first trained a high-ranking female from each of two groups of captive chimpanzees to adopt one of two different tool-use techniques for obtaining food from the same 'Pan-pipe' apparatus, then re-introduced each female to her respective group. All but two of 32 chimpanzees mastered the new technique under the influence of their local expert, whereas none did so in a third population lacking an expert. Most chimpanzees adopted the method seeded in their group, and these traditions continued to diverge over time. A subset of chimpanzees that discovered the alternative method nevertheless went on to match the predominant approach of their companions, showing a conformity bias that is regarded as a hallmark of human culture.
	Address	Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9JP, UK. a.whiten@st-and.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1476-4687	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16113685			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	163
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.; Goodall, J.; McGrew, W.C.; Nishida, T.; Reynolds, V.; Sugiyama, Y.; Tutin, C.E.; Wrangham, R.W.; Boesch, C.
	Title	Cultures in chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	399	Issue	6737	Pages	682-685
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Culture; Humans; Pan troglodytes/*physiology; Species Specificity
	Abstract	As an increasing number of field studies of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have achieved long-term status across Africa, differences in the behavioural repertoires described have become apparent that suggest there is significant cultural variation. Here we present a systematic synthesis of this information from the seven most long-term studies, which together have accumulated 151 years of chimpanzee observation. This comprehensive analysis reveals patterns of variation that are far more extensive than have previously been documented for any animal species except humans. We find that 39 different behaviour patterns, including tool usage, grooming and courtship behaviours, are customary or habitual in some communities but are absent in others where ecological explanations have been discounted. Among mammalian and avian species, cultural variation has previously been identified only for single behaviour patterns, such as the local dialects of song-birds. The extensive, multiple variations now documented for chimpanzees are thus without parallel. Moreover, the combined repertoire of these behaviour patterns in each chimpanzee community is itself highly distinctive, a phenomenon characteristic of human cultures but previously unrecognised in non-human species.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-0836	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10385119			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	742
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	Author	Parr, L.A.; de Waal, F.B.
	Title	Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees			Type
	Year	1999	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	399	Issue	6737	Pages	647-648
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Face; Female; Male; Pan troglodytes/physiology
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-0836	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10385114			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	195
Permanent link to this record



	Author	de Waal, F.B.
	Title	Cultural primatology comes of age			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	399	Issue	6737	Pages	635-636
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Culture; Humans; Pan troglodytes/*physiology
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-0836	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10385107			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	196
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Assersohn, C.; Whiten, A.; Kiwede, Z.T.; Tinka, J.; Karamagi, J.
	Title	Use of leaves to inspect ectoparasites in wild chimpanzees: a third cultural variant?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	Primates	Abbreviated Journal	Primates
	Volume	45	Issue	4	Pages	255-258
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild/physiology; Ape Diseases/parasitology; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Ectoparasitic Infestations/parasitology/veterinary; Female; Grooming/physiology; Male; Pan troglodytes/physiology; Plant Leaves; Protozoa/*isolation & purification; Uganda
	Abstract	We report 26 cases of using leaves as tools with which wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Sonso community, Budongo Forest, Uganda, appeared to inspect objects removed during grooming. Careful removal of potential ectoparasites and delicate lip or manual placement on leaves followed by intense visual examination characterised this behaviour. It appears to be done to judge whether either ingestion or discarding is most appropriate, the former occurring in most cases. This behaviour may represent a third variant of ectoparasite handling, different from those described at Tai and Gombe, yet sharing features with the latter. These two East African techniques may thus have evolved from leaf grooming.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9JU, Fife, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0032-8332	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15179558			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	733
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	Author	Tanaka, M.; Tomonaga, M.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Finger drawing by infant chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	245-251
	Keywords	Animals; Art; Female; Fingers; Gestures; Male; Motor Skills/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology/psychology
	Abstract	We introduced a new technique to investigate the development of scribbling in very young infants. We tested three infant chimpanzees to compare the developmental processes of scribbling between humans and chimpanzees. While human infants start to scribble on paper at around the age of 18 months, our 13- to 23-month-old infant chimpanzees had never been observed scribbling prior to this study. We used a notebook computer with a touch-sensitive screen. This apparatus was able to record the location of the subjects' touches on the screen. Each touch generated a fingertip-sized dot at the corresponding on-screen location. During spontaneous interactions with this apparatus, all three infants and two mother chimpanzees left scribbles with their fingers on the screen. The scribbles contained not only simple dots or short lines, but also curves and hook-like lines or loops, most of which were observed in the instrumental drawings of adult chimpanzees. The results suggest that perceptual-motor control for finger drawing develops in infant chimpanzees. Two of the infants performed their first scribble with a marker on paper at the age of 20-23 months. Just prior to this, they showed a rapid increase in combinatory manipulation of objects. These findings suggest that the development of combinatory manipulation of objects as well as that of perceptual-motor control may be necessary for the emergence of instrumental drawing on paper.
	Address	Section of Language and Intelligence, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41 Kanrin, 484-8506 Inuyama, Aichi, Japan. mtanaka@pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14605946			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2551
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Bard, K.A.
	Title	Neonatal imitation in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) tested with two paradigms			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	10	Issue	2	Pages	233-242
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Animals, Newborn; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology/*psychology; Problem Solving/physiology
	Abstract	Primate species differ in their imitative performance, perhaps reflecting differences in imitative capacity. The developmentally earliest form of imitation in humans, neonatal imitation, occurs in early interactions with social partners, and may be a more accurate index of innate capacity than imitation of actions on objects, which requires more cognitive ability. This study assessed imitative capacity in five neonatal chimpanzees, within a narrow age range (7-15 days of age), by testing responses to facial and vocal actions with two different test paradigms (structured and communicative). Imitation of mouth opening was found in both paradigms. In the communicative paradigm, significant agreement was found between infant actions and demonstrations. Additionally, chimpanzees matched the sequence of three actions of the TC model, but only on the second demonstration. Newborn chimpanzees matched more modeled actions in the communicative test than in the structured paradigm. These performances of chimpanzees, at birth, are in agreement with the literature, supporting a conclusion that imitative capacity is not unique to the human species. Developmental histories must be more fully considered in the cross-species study of imitation, as there is a greater degree of innate imitative capacity than previously known. Socialization practices interact with innate and developing competencies to determine the outcome of imitation tests later in life.
	Address	Centre for the Study of Emotion, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry Building, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, UK. kim.bard@port.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17180698			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2427
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	Author	Brosnan, S.F.; de Waal, F.B.M.
	Title	Responses to a simple barter task in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Primates	Abbreviated Journal	Primates
	Volume	46	Issue	3	Pages	173-182
	Keywords	Analysis of Variance; Animals; Choice Behavior/physiology; Conditioning (Psychology)/physiology; Learning/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology; Reward; Sex Factors; Social Behavior; *Token Economy
	Abstract	Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) frequently participate in social exchange involving multiple goods and services of variable value, yet they have not been tested in a formalized situation to see whether they can barter using multiple tokens and rewards. We set up a simple barter economy with two tokens and two associated rewards and tested chimpanzees on their ability to obtain rewards by returning the matching token in situations in which their access to tokens was unlimited or limited. Chimpanzees easily learned to associate value with the tokens, as expected, and did barter, but followed a simple strategy of favoring the higher-value token, regardless of the reward proffered, instead of a more complex but more effective strategy of returning the token that matched the reward. This response is similar to that shown by capuchin monkeys in our previous study. We speculate that this response, while not ideal, may be sufficient to allow for stability of the social exchange system in these primates, and that the importance of social barter to both species may have led to this convergence of strategies.
	Address	Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. sbrosna@emory.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0032-8332	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15824938			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	167
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Tanaka, M.
	Title	Recognition of pictorial representations by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	10	Issue	2	Pages	169-179
	Keywords	Animals; Discrimination Learning; Female; Male; Pan troglodytes/physiology; Pattern Recognition, Visual; Photography
	Abstract	In this study, I investigated chimpanzees' ability to recognize pictorial representations. Four adults and three juvenile chimpanzees were trained to choose images of photographs of flowers among 12 items belonging to four categories on a touch-sensitive monitor. As a generalization test, the following five types of images were presented: (1) novel photographs, (2) colored sketches (more realistic), (3) a colored clip art (cartoon-like images), (4) black-and-white line drawings, and (5) Kanji characters (as the control images). One adult and all three juvenile chimpanzees were able to choose any style of the nonphotographic images of flowers significantly above the chance level, whereas none could choose the correct Kanji characters corresponding to a flower significantly above the chance level. The other three adult chimpanzees' performance level did not exceed the chance level in terms of choosing nonphotographic images although they showed good transfer skills to novel photographs. The results revealed that not all chimpanzees could recognize pictures used by humans without training. The results also suggest “critical period” in acquisition of skill in recognizing pictures in chimpanzees. Only one adult chimpanzee, who had acquired skill in recognizing visual symbols, also recognized pictures aside from the juvenile chimpanzees. Her learning history might have aided her in acquiring this skill. The results of this study suggest a relationship between pictorial competence and symbolic one.
	Address	Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41-2 Kanrin, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan. mtanaka@pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17171361			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2428
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Iversen, I.H.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Development of interception of moving targets by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an automated task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	3	Pages	169-183
	Keywords	Animals; Female; Hand/physiology; Motion Perception/physiology; Movement/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology; Spatial Behavior/physiology; Task Performance and Analysis; User-Computer Interface; Visual Perception/physiology
	Abstract	The experiments investigated how two adult captive chimpanzees learned to navigate in an automated interception task. They had to capture a visual target that moved predictably on a touch monitor. The aim of the study was to determine the learning stages that led to an efficient strategy of intercepting the target. The chimpanzees had prior training in moving a finger on a touch monitor and were exposed to the interception task without any explicit training. With a finger the subject could move a small “ball” at any speed on the screen toward a visual target that moved at a fixed speed either back and forth in a linear path or around the edge of the screen in a rectangular pattern. Initial ball and target locations varied from trial to trial. The subjects received a small fruit reinforcement when they hit the target with the ball. The speed of target movement was increased across training stages up to 38 cm/s. Learning progressed from merely chasing the target to intercepting the target by moving the ball to a point on the screen that coincided with arrival of the target at that point. Performance improvement consisted of reduction in redundancy of the movement path and reduction in the time to target interception. Analysis of the finger's movement path showed that the subjects anticipated the target's movement even before it began to move. Thus, the subjects learned to use the target's initial resting location at trial onset as a predictive signal for where the target would later be when it began moving. During probe trials, where the target unpredictably remained stationary throughout the trial, the subjects first moved the ball in anticipation of expected target movement and then corrected the movement to steer the ball to the resting target. Anticipatory ball movement in probe trials with novel ball and target locations (tested for one subject) showed generalized interception beyond the trained ball and target locations. The experiments illustrate in a laboratory setting the development of a highly complex and adaptive motor performance that resembles navigational skills seen in natural settings where predators intercept the path of moving prey.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA. iiversen@unf.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12761656			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2567
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