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Author |
Witte, T.H.; Knill, K.; Wilson, A.M. |
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Title |
Determination of peak vertical ground reaction force from duty factor in the horse (Equus caballus) |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
The Journal of Experimental Biology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Biol |
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Volume |
207 |
Issue |
Pt 21 |
Pages  |
3639-3648 |
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Keywords |
*Acceleration; Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/physiology; *Gait; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Telemetry; Time Factors |
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Abstract |
Measurement of peak vertical ground reaction force (GRFz) from multiple limbs simultaneously during high-speed, over-ground locomotion would enhance our understanding of the locomotor mechanics of cursorial animals. Here, we evaluate the accuracy of predicting peak GRFz from duty factor (the proportion of the stride for which the limb is in contact with the ground). Foot-mounted uniaxial accelerometers, combined with UHF FM telemetry, are shown to be practical and accurate for the field measurement of stride timing variables, including duty factor. Direct comparison with the force plate produces a mean error of 2.3 ms and 3.5 ms for the timing of foot on and foot off, respectively, across all gaits. Predictions of peak GRFz from duty factor show mean errors (with positive values indicating an overestimate) of 0.8+/-0.04 N kg(-1) (13%; N=42; mean +/- S.E.M.) at walk, -0.3+/-0.06 N kg(-1) (3%; N=75) at trot, -2.3+/-0.27 N kg(-1) (16%; N=18) for the non-lead limb at canter and +2.1+/-0.7 N kg(-1) (19%; N=9) for the lead limb at canter. The substantial over- and underestimate seen at canter, in the lead and non-lead limbs, respectively, is attributed to the different functions performed by the two limbs in the asymmetrical gaits. The difference in load experienced by the lead and non-lead limbs decreased with increasing speed. |
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Structure and Motion Lab, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK |
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0022-0949 |
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PMID:15371472 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3658 |
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Author |
McGuigan, M.P.; Wilson, A.M. |
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Title |
The effect of gait and digital flexor muscle activation on limb compliance in the forelimb of the horse Equus caballus |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
The Journal of Experimental Biology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Biol |
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Volume |
206 |
Issue |
Pt 8 |
Pages |
1325-1336 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Gait/*physiology; Horses/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Muscle Contraction/*physiology; Running |
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A horse's legs are compressed during the stance phase, storing and then returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units. The arrangement of the muscle-tendon units around the lever-like joints means that as the leg shortens the muscle-tendon units are stretched. The forelimb anatomy means that the leg can be conceptually divided into two springs: the proximal spring, from the scapula to the elbow, and the distal spring, from the elbow to the foot. In this paper we report the results of a series of experiments testing the hypothesis that there is minimal scope for muscle contraction in either spring to adjust limb compliance. Firstly, we demonstrate that the distal, passive leg spring changes length by 127 mm (range 106-128 mm) at gallop and the proximal spring by 12 mm (9-15 mm). Secondly, we demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between limb force and metacarpo-phalangeal (MCP) joint angle that is minimally influenced by digital flexor muscle activation in vitro or as a function of gait in vivo. Finally, we determined the relationship between MCP joint angle and vertical ground-reaction force at trot and then predicted the forelimb peak vertical ground-reaction force during a 12 m s(-1) gallop on a treadmill. These were 12.79 N kg(-1) body mass (BM) (range 12.07-13.73 N kg(-1) BM) for the lead forelimb and 15.23 N kg(-1) BM (13.51-17.10 N kg(-1) BM) for the non-lead forelimb. |
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Structure and Motion Laboratory, Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK. m.p.mcguigan@leeds.ac.uk |
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0022-0949 |
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PMID:12624168 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3655 |
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Author |
Santamaria, S.; Bobbert, M.E.; Back, W.; Barneveld, A.; van Weeren, P.R. |
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Title |
Variation in free jumping technique within and among horses with little experience in show jumping |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
American Journal of Veterinary Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Am J Vet Res |
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Volume |
65 |
Issue |
7 |
Pages |
938-944 |
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Keywords |
*Acceleration; Analysis of Variance; Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/physiology; Gait/*physiology; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Models, Biological; Video Recording |
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OBJECTIVE: To quantify variation in the jumping technique within and among young horses with little jumping experience, establish relationships between kinetic and kinematic variables, and identify a limited set of variables characteristic for detecting differences in jumping performance among horses. ANIMALS: Fifteen 4-year-old Dutch Warmblood horses. PROCEDURE: The horses were raised under standardized conditions and trained in accordance with a fixed protocol for a short period. Subsequently, horses were analyzed kinematically during free jumping over a fence with a height of 1.05 m. RESULTS: Within-horse variation in all variables that quantified jumping technique was smaller than variation among horses. However, some horses had less variation than others. Height of the center of gravity (CG) at the apex of the jump ranged from 1.80 to 2.01 m among horses; this variation could be explained by the variation in vertical velocity of the CG at takeoff (r, 0.78). Horses that had higher vertical velocity at takeoff left the ground and landed again farther from the fence, had shorter push-off phases for the forelimbs and hind limbs, and generated greater vertical acceleration of the CG primarily during the hind limb push-off. However, all horses cleared the fence successfully, independent of jumping technique. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Each horse had its own jumping technique. Differences among techniques were characterized by variations in the vertical velocity of the CG at takeoff. It must be determined whether jumping performance later in life can be predicted from observing free jumps of young horses. |
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Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 12, NL-3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands |
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0002-9645 |
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PMID:15281652 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3772 |
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Wilson, A.M.; McGuigan, M.P.; Su, A.; van Den Bogert, A.J. |
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Title |
Horses damp the spring in their step |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Nature |
Abbreviated Journal |
Nature |
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Volume |
414 |
Issue |
6866 |
Pages |
895-899 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Elasticity; Forelimb; Gait; Horses/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Leg Bones/*physiology; Locomotion; Models, Biological; Muscle Fibers/physiology; Muscle, Skeletal/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Tendons/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Vibration |
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The muscular work of galloping in horses is halved by storing and returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units.These make the legs act like a child's pogo stick that is tuned to stretch and recoil at 2.5 strides per second. This mechanism is optimized by unique musculoskeletal adaptations: the digital flexor muscles have extremely short fibres and significant passive properties, whereas the tendons are very long and span several joints. Length change occurs by a stretching of the spring-like digital flexor tendons rather than through energetically expensive length changes in the muscle. Despite being apparently redundant for such a mechanism, the muscle fibres in the digital flexors are well developed. Here we show that the mechanical arrangement of the elastic leg permits it to vibrate at a higher frequency of 30-40 Hz that could cause fatigue damage to tendon and bone. Furthermore, we show that the digital flexor muscles have minimal ability to contribute to or regulate significantly the 2.5-Hz cycle of movement, but are ideally arranged to damp these high-frequency oscillations in the limb. |
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Department of Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Herts AL9 7TA, UK. awilson@rvc.ac.uk |
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0028-0836 |
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PMID:11780059 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2300 |
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Author |
Clayton, H.M. |
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Title |
Comparison of the stride kinematics of the collected, medium, and extended walks in horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1995 |
Publication |
American Journal of Veterinary Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Am J Vet Res |
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56 |
Issue |
7 |
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849-852 |
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Keywords |
Analysis of Variance; Animals; *Gait; Horses/*physiology; *Locomotion; Motion Pictures; Physical Conditioning, Animal; Walking |
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Six horses, highly trained for dressage competition, were used to study the stride kinematics of the walk, and to compare the kinematics of the collected, medium, and extended walks. Horses were filmed in a sagittal plane at a rate of 150 frames/s; temporal, linear, and angular data were extracted from the films. Results of ANOVA and Duncan's multiple range test indicated that the speed of the collected walk (1.37 m/s) was significantly (P < 0.01) slower than that of the medium (1.73 m/s) and extended (1.82 m/s) walks, values for which were not significantly different from each other. The increase in speed was associated with a significant increase in stride length, from 157 cm in the collected walk to 193 cm in the extended walk. This was a result of an increase in the over-tracking distance, whereas there was no significant difference in the distance between lateral placements of the limbs. Stride duration decreased (P < 0.01) from the collected walk (1,159 ms) to the extended walk (1,064 ms). Angles of the metacarpal and metatarsal segments, measured on the palmar/ plantar aspect, were higher at impact and lower at lift off in the collected than in the extended walk (P < 0.01). This indicated greater range of angular motion of this segment during the stance phase in the extended walk. Only 1 of the 6 horses had a regular 4-beat rhythm of the footfalls, with equal time elapsing between the lateral and diagonal footfalls. |
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Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, Canada |
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0002-9645 |
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PMID:7574149 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3743 |
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Author |
Fruehwirth, B.; Peham, C.; Scheidl, M.; Schobesberger, H. |
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Title |
Evaluation of pressure distribution under an English saddle at walk, trot and canter |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
754-757 |
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Animals; Back/*physiology; Biomechanics; Body Weight/physiology; Exercise Test/veterinary; Gait/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Humans; Locomotion/*physiology; Pressure |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Basic information about the influence of a rider on the equine back is currently lacking. HYPOTHESIS: That pressure distribution under a saddle is different between the walk, trot and canter. METHODS: Twelve horses without clinical signs of back pain were ridden. At least 6 motion cycles at walk, trot and canter were measured kinematically. Using a saddle pad, the pressure distribution was recorded. The maximum overall force (MOF) and centre of pressure (COP) were calculated. The range of back movement was determined from a marker placed on the withers. RESULTS: MOF and COP showed a consistent time pattern in each gait. MOF was 12.1 +/- 1.2 and 243 +/- 4.6 N/kg at walk and trot, respectively, in the ridden horse. In the unridden horse MOF was 172.7 +/- 11.8 N (walk) and 302.4 +/- 33.9 N (trot). At ridden canter, MOF was 27.2 +/- 4.4 N/kg. The range of motion of the back of the ridden horse was significantly lower compared to the unridden, saddled horse. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Analyses may help quantitative and objective evaluation of the interaction between rider and horse as mediated through the saddle. The information presented is therefore of importance to riders, saddlers and equine clinicians. With the technique used in this study, style, skill and training level of different riders can be quantified, which would give the opportunity to detect potentially harmful influences and create opportunities for improvement. |
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Movement Science Group, Department V, Clinic of Orthopaedics in Ungulates, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:15656510 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4041 |
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Cassiat, G.; Pourcelot, P.; Tavernier, L.; Geiger, D.; Denoix, J.M.; Degueurce, D. |
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Title |
Influence of individual competition level on back kinematics of horses jumping a vertical fence |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
748-753 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Back/*physiology; Biomechanics; Female; Forelimb/*physiology; Gait/*physiology; Hindlimb/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; Imaging, Three-Dimensional/veterinary; Locomotion/physiology; Male; Video Recording |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The costs and investments required for the purchase and training of showjumpers justify the need to find selection means for jumping horses. Use of objective kinematic criteria correlated to jumping ability could be helpful for this assessment. OBJECTIVES: To compare back kinematics between 2 groups of horses of different competition levels (Group 1, competing at high level; Group 2 competing at low level) while free jumping over a 1 m vertical fence. METHODS: Three-dimensional recordings were performed using 2 panning cameras. Kinematic parameters of the withers and tuber sacrale (vertical displacement, vertical and horizontal velocities), backline inclination and flexion-extension motion of the 3 main dorsal segments (thoracic, thoracolumbar and lumbosacral) were analysed. RESULTS: Group 2 horses had a lower displacement of their withers and tuber sacrale from the end of the last approach stride until the first departure stride (P<0.05). As a result, they increased the flexion of their thoracolumbar and lumbosacral junctions during the hindlimb swing phase before take-off (P<0.05). However, withers and tuber sacrale velocities were slightly modified. Group 1 horses pitched their backline less forward during the forelimb stance phase before take-off and straightened it more after landing (P<0.05), probably indicating a more efficient strutting action of their forelimbs. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Because significant differences in back motion were found between good and poor jumpers when jumping a 1 m high fence, criteria based on certain back kinematics can be developed that may help in the selection of talented showjumpers. |
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UMR INRA-ENVA de Biomecanique et Pathologie Locomotrice du Cheval, Ecole Nationale Veterinaire d'Alfort, Avenue du General de Gaulle, 94704 Maisons Alfort, France |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:15656509 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4042 |
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Author |
Licka, T.; Kapaun, M.; Peham, C. |
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Title |
Influence of rider on lameness in trotting horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
734-736 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Body Weight; Exercise Test/veterinary; Female; Forelimb/physiopathology; Gait/*physiology; Head Movements/*physiology; Hindlimb/physiopathology; Horse Diseases/diagnosis/*physiopathology; Horses; Humans; Lameness, Animal/diagnosis/*physiopathology; Male; Stress, Mechanical; Weight-Bearing/physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Equine lameness is commonly evaluated when the horse is being ridden, but the influence of the rider on the lameness has not been documented. OBJECTIVE: To document the effect of 2 riders of different training levels on the vertical movement of the head and croup. METHODS: Twenty mature horses were ridden at trot by an experienced dressage rider and a novice rider, as well as trotted in hand. Kinematic measurements of markers placed on the horse's head and sacral bone were carried out. The asymmetries of the vertical head and sacral bone motion were calculated as lameness parameters and compared with paired t tests. RESULTS: Trotting in hand, 17 horses showed forelimb lameness (1-4/10) and 13 hindlimb lameness (1-2/10). Intra-individually, 11 horses showed significant differences in forelimb lameness and 4 horses showed significant differences in hindlimb lameness when ridden. Over all horses, hindlimb lameness increased significantly under the dressage rider compared to unridden horses. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of a rider can alter the degree of lameness; however, its influence cannot be predicted for an individual horse. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: In order to evaluate mild lameness, horses should be evaluated at trot both under saddle and in hand. If lameness is exacerbated, a second rider may be helpful; the level of training of the rider should be taken into consideration. |
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Movement Science Group, Department V, Clinic of Orthopaedics in Ungulates, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:15656506 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3715 |
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Wennerstrand, J.; Johnston, C.; Roethlisberger-Holm, K.; Erichsen, C.; Eksell, P.; Drevemo, S. |
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Title |
Kinematic evaluation of the back in the sport horse with back pain |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
707-711 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Back/*physiology; Back Pain/diagnosis/physiopathology/*veterinary; Biomechanics; Exercise Test/veterinary; Gait/*physiology; Horse Diseases/diagnosis/*physiopathology; Horses/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Locomotion/physiology; Lumbar Vertebrae/physiology; Range of Motion, Articular; Stress, Mechanical; Thoracic Vertebrae/physiology; Weight-Bearing |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Earlier studies have developed a clinical tool to evaluate objectively the function of the equine back. The ability to differentiate horses with back pain from asymptomatic, fully functioning horses using kinematic measures from this tool has not been evaluated. OBJECTIVES: To compare the kinematics of the back at walk and trot in riding horses with back dysfunction to the same parameters in asymptomatic sport horses. METHODS: The kinematics of the back in 12 horses with impaired performance and back pain were studied at walk and trot on a treadmill. Data were captured for 10 sees at 240 Hz. Range of movement (ROM) and intravertebral pattern symmetry of movement for flexion and extension (FE), lateral bending (LB) and axial rotation (AR) were derived from angular motion pattern data and the results compared to an earlier established database on asymptomatic riding horses. RESULTS: At walk, horses with back dysfunction had a ROM smaller for dorsoventral FE in the caudal thoracic region (T13 = 7.50 degrees, T17 = 7.71 degrees; P<0.05), greater for LB at T13 (8.13 degrees; P<0.001) and smaller for AR of the pelvis (10.97 degrees; P<0.05) compared to asymptomatic horses (FE-T13 = 8.28 degrees, FE-T17 = 8.49 degrees, LB-T13 = 6.34 degrees, AR-pelvis = 12.77 degrees). At trot, dysfunctional horses had a smaller (P<0.05) ROM for FE at the thoracic lumbar junction (T17 = 2.46 degrees, L1 = 2.60 degrees) compared to asymptomatic horses (FE-T17 = 3.07 degrees, FE-L1 = 3.12 degrees). CONCLUSIONS: The objective measurement technique can detect differences between back kinematics in riding horses with signs of back dysfunction and asymptomatic horses. The clinical manifestation of back pain results in diminished flexion/extension movement at or near the thoracic lumbar junction. However, before applying the method more extensively in practice it is necessary to evaluate it further, including measurements of patients whose diagnoses can be confirmed and long-term follow-ups of back patients after treatment. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Since the objective measurement technique can detect small movement differences in back kinematics, it should help to clinically describe and, importantly, objectively detect horses with back pain and dysfunction. |
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Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:15656501 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3656 |
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Author |
Rollot, Y.; Lecuyer, E.; Chateau, H.; Crevier-Denoix, N. |
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Title |
Development of a 3D model of the equine distal forelimb and of a GRF shoe for noninvasive determination of in vivo tendon and ligament loads and strains |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
677-682 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Floors and Floorcoverings; Forelimb/*physiology/ultrasonography; Gait/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; Imaging, Three-Dimensional/methods/*veterinary; Ligaments, Articular/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Models, Biological; Shoes; Tendons/*physiology; Toe Joint/physiology/ultrasonography |
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Abstract |
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: As critical locomotion events (e.g. high-speed and impacts during racing, jump landing) may contribute to tendinopathies, in vivo recording of gaits kinematic and dynamic parameters is essential for 3D reconstruction and analysis. OBJECTIVE: To propose a 3D model of the forelimb and a ground reaction force recording shoe (GRF-S) for noninvasively quantifying tendon and ligament loads and strains. METHODS: Bony segments trajectories of forelimbs placed under a power press were recorded using triads of ultrasonic kinematic markers linked to the bones. Compression cycles (from 500-6000 N) were applied for different hoof orientations. Locations of tendon and ligament insertions were recorded with regard to the triads. The GRF-S recorded GRF over the hoof wall and used four 3-axis force sensors sandwiched between a support shoe and the shoe to be tested. RESULTS: Validation of the model by comparing calculated and measured superficial digital flexor tendon strains, and evaluation of the role of proximal interphalangeal joint in straight sesamoidean ligament and oblique sesamoidean ligament strains, were successfully achieved. Objective comparisons of the 3 components of GRF over the hoof for soft and hard grounds could be recorded, where the s.d. of GRF norm was more important on hard ground at walk and trot. CONCLUSIONS: Soft grounds (sand and rubber) dissipate energy by lowering GRF amplitude and diminish bounces and vibrations at impact. At comparable speed, stance phase was longer on soft sand ground. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The conjugate use of the GRF-S and the numerical model would help to quantify and analyse ground/shoe combination on comfort, propulsion efficiency or lameness recovery. |
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Address |
UMR INRA-ENVA de Biomecanique et Pathologie Locomotrice du Cheval, Ecole Nationale Veterinaire d'Alfort, 7, Avenue du General de Gaulle, 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France |
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English |
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0425-1644 |
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Notes |
PMID:15656495 |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3769 |
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| Permanent link to this record |
