Abstract: Horses have been considered to rely on human gesticular cues (McKinley and Sambrook 2000, Anim Cogn 3:13-22; and recently Maros et al. 2008, Anim Cogn 11:457-466), however large variability among individuals tested in two-ways object choice tasks was found. Part of the horses in those studies (40 and 26 %, respectively) even failed to pass adequately through the training session which preceded the testing phase and served to learn a horse to carry out a task. Therefore, we alternated the experimental design designed by McKinley and Sambrook (reduced number of testing trials to 10 per horse to keep its attention, applied just one, a dynamic-sustained pointing cue with touching the bucket, etc.), and tested an effect of training method, sex, age, and learning on proportion of correct choices. We hypothesised, that horses trained by “traditional” method (TTM) will get lower score than those experienced with “horsemanship-based” methods (HTM), being characterized by closer and more frequent human-horse contact and also extended exercising “from the ground” with frequent using of arms cues. Despite simplification of the methods, only about 60 % of tested horses passed through the training phase (i.e., learned to come to and upturn the bucket with hidden treat). Successful completion of training phase was reached regardless of age or sex of a horse, but by the training method; HTM horses ran better compared to TTM ones. No significant effect of age, sex, or learning (i.e., trial order within all 10), and training method as well was found on proportion of correct trials in the testing phase. Horses made a correct choice in more than 70% of trials. Individual scores ranged from 50 to 100 %. In conclusion, horses showed high level of comprehension of human pointing gesture, regardless of their sex or age. No effects of training method or learning process within a test suggest low impact of handling and learning on the level of comprehension at least of the most vivid human pointing gesture. Horses trained by methods based on “natural human-horse communication” did enhance cooperation with people.

Abstract: Whereas mammalian mothers and young may retain long-term social affiliations in nature, the management of animals in captivity typically dictates that offspring are abruptly and permanently separated from their mothers at a relatively early age, often prior to the time of natural weaning. For animal breeders, this strategy can enhance the yield of offspring from a breeding population. Morbidity and mortality can also precipitate severance of mother-young bonds. Although it is recognized that early weaning provides nutritional challenges for the young, relatively little attention has been paid to the psychological consequences and long-term impacts of breaking the mother-young bond in non-human mammals. Furthermore, whereas great strides are being made in our understanding of the neurobiological and genetic underpinnings of social bonding, the mechanisms underlying the process of detachment following establishment of a mother-young bond remain relatively unexplored, although parallels can be drawn with processes involved in withdrawal from addictive substances. In this review, we outline mechanisms involved in social bonding. We consider the diversity in extent and duration of mother-young attachment across mammalian lineages and implications for predicting the outcome of severing ties between mothers and young at different times post-partum. We identify characteristics signalling emotional distress resulting from separation of mothers and young and discuss strategies for mitigating separation-induced distress. These include postponement of separation, ensuring high-quality maternal care of young prior to separation, providing bonded individuals with opportunities to separate voluntarily for brief periods prior to permanent separation, use of anti-suck devices prior to separation, allowing a period of partial (fence line) contact prior to full separation, providing substitutes for stimuli previously exchanged between mother and young, providing social buffers, gradual introduction to new housing arrangements, and pharmacological intervention. Areas for future research are proposed, including the use of functional neuroimaging technologies and functional genomics approaches, in combination with behavioural assessments of reinstatement motivation, individual recognition memory and long-term consequences of early separation, to shed further light on the nature of mother-young bonding and detachment in animals.

Abstract: Canada has a variety of educational offerings in equine management at the diploma and certificate level offered by universities and colleges, as well as by industry supported centres. However, it was not until 2007 that the first degree-based program in equine science was launched. Offered by the University of Guelph, the Bachelor of Bio- Resource Management – Equine Management program is designed for students who do not intend to pursue post-graduate studies and are strongly focused on securing employment that makes use of the knowledge acquired in their bachelor's degree. The courses in the BSc-program include basic natural sciences as well as equine-specific courses with a focus on management of equine related businesses and events. Diploma and certificate programs usually include only specifically equine-related courses e.g. in anatomy and physiology, health, business, facility management and nutrition. All diploma and certificate programs, and to a slightly lesser extent the BSc program, have a strong focus on applied learning with the intent to provide highly trained workers for the industry. Unique in Canada are the entirely online-taught Diploma in Equine Studies, the Certificate in Equine Business Management and the Equine Science Certificate offered by Equine Guelph and the University of Guelph"s continuing education. Students of these programs have access to a virtual classroom via the internet, and therefore access to instructors and guest speakers from the industry throughout the course. The Canadian certificate programs typically take one year (two semesters), the diploma programs two years (four semesters), while the BSc program takes four years (eight semesters). The BSc program requires approximately 2000 hours of in-class time plus roughly twice the amount spent on assignments and studying, totalling to an overall workload of roughly 6000 hours. Most programs require the completion of Grade 12 or equivalent for admission, and in all programs a background and experience with horses is not required for admission, however it is usually deemed beneficial. Career options for BSc-graduates include barn management, riding instructor or coach, professional rider, judge, steward, course designer, equine-assisted therapy, veterinary assistant, event manager, nutrition consultant, retail sales in tack and equipment, equine sales and marketing, agriculture extension services, college lecturer, consultant and technical advisor, and media relations. Career options for the diploma and certificate program graduates generally include similar areas, with a focus on hands-on work and direct interaction with horses such as employment as grooms, trainers and barn managers.

Abstract: The MSc-program in Equine Science, initiated in 2006 in response to needs for scientific support of the growing equine sector, is the first of its kind in Germany. It is offered by the Faculty of Agriculture Science, Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics at the University of Göttingen, Germany, however courses are delivered in cooperation with the University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover and the German Equestrian Federation (FN). The courses are concerned with the scientific basis of horse breeding, husbandry, nutrition, physiology, behaviour, and health, as well as with aspects of business administration and management of equine facilities and their impact on society, economy and the environment. Courses are delivered in German and – in the case of some guest speakers – English language in form of lectures, laboratories, seminars, group-projects, internships and a combination thereof. Currently, the program is limited to 30 students per year and requirements for admittance are a BSc (or equivalent) degree in animal science or related subjects. However, graduates of programs e.g. in business administration, economics, or veterinary or law schools, are also accepted. The program takes two years (four semesters), and requires the completion of 120 European Credit Transfer System points, i.e. a workload of approximately 3000 hours. This timeframe includes the preparation of a thesis based upon research in topics related to equine science, demonstrating the candidate"s capacity for original and independent work. Further information about the program can be obtained from the official website: http://www.pferde.uni-goettingen.de . Career options for graduates include equine facilities management, consulting services, agriculture extension services, feed industry, agricultural ministry and related civil service, universities and research institutions.

Abstract: Suckling, the main part of maternal investment in equids, is crucial for development and social success of the foal. As such it is of great importance in horse breeding. We examined effect of following factors mentioned in literature on behavioural parameters of suckling in loose housed domestic horses: age and sex of the suckling foal, age, parity (primiparous/multiparous), pregnancy (yes/no) and rank of the mother and sex of the foetus if the mother was pregnant. Four variables describing suckling behaviour were modelled: proportion of suckling attempts rejected by the mother, suckling duration, frequency of suckling and proportion of suckling terminated by the mother. Further, suckling terminated by another mare were analyzed. Behavioural observations were conducted at the National Stud Kladruby nad Labem (Czech Republic). Eight groups of loose housed Oldkladruby horse mares with foals were observed from 14 days (in average) after delivery to abrupt weaning (four to six months of age), each foal for 120 days at least. Within two seasons, 10 495 suckling bouts and suckling attempts were observed in 79 foals (32 males, 47 females, mothered by 59 individual mares). Horses were studied with ad libitum sampling for 6 hours per group each 14 days. Dominance status of the mother was assessed using the Clutton-Brock index (Clutton-Brock et al. 1982, Nature 350:178-180), adjusted to the number of mares in each group, and dyadic dominance-submission relationships between all group members (mares) were determined. No significant effect of pregnancy and sex of the foetus on suckling behaviour were found, except the tendency of mothers bearing female foetuses to terminate more suckling. These findings are opposite to literature, where male foetuses were connected with higher rejection rates (Duncan et al. 1984, Anim Behav 32:255-263). However, incidence of suckling attempts rejected by the mother was very low (2.24 %). No effect of pregnancy of the mother could be caused by the stud management; horses are well fed and do not suffer for nutrition stress as horses in the wild may. All variables were negatively affected by increasing foals age (as expected). Neither sex of the suckling foal, nor age of the mother did significantly affect any of the studied variables. The higher dominance rank a mare achieved the higher frequency of other group member suckling she terminated (rs = 0.49, P < 0.0001; Spearman correlation coefficients, PROC CORR, SAS). From suckling terminated by another mare (N = 190), in 93 % (N =177) it is a dominant mare who ends the suckling. Despite these significant results, suckling terminated by another mare were negligible (1.8 % from all observed suckling bouts) and agonistic interactions between dominant and submissive mares seemed not to compromise foal development. In conclusion, in loose housed mares of domestic horse with foals we have found no detrimental effect of any of literally cited factors on suckling behaviour.