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	Author	de Waal, F.B.M.
	Title	Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Annual Review of Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	Annu Rev Psychol
	Volume	59	Issue	1	Pages	279-300
	Keywords
	Abstract	Evolutionary theory postulates that altruistic behavior evolved for the return-benefits it bears the performer. For return-benefits to play a motivational role, however, they need to be experienced by the organism. Motivational analyses should restrict themselves, therefore, to the altruistic impulse and its knowable consequences. Empathy is an ideal candidate mechanism to underlie so-called directed altruism, i.e., altruism in response to anothers's pain, need, or distress. Evidence is accumulating that this mechanism is phylogenetically ancient, probably as old as mammals and birds. Perception of the emotional state of another automatically activates shared representations causing a matching emotional state in the observer. With increasing cognition, state-matching evolved into more complex forms, including concern for the other and perspective-taking. Empathy-induced altruism derives its strength from the emotional stake it offers the self in the other's welfare. The dynamics of the empathy mechanism agree with predictions from kin selection and reciprocal altruism theory.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Annual Reviews	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0066-4308	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5058
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	Author	Brooks, C.J.; Harris, S.
	Title	Directed movement and orientation across a large natural landscape by zebras, Equus burchelli antiquorum			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	76	Issue	2	Pages	277-285
	Keywords	correlated random walk; directed movement; Equus burchelli antiquorum; Gps; movement path; orientation; spatial memory; spatial scale; zebra
	Abstract	We investigated how plains zebras moved across a large natural landscape by analysing the movement paths of nine zebra mares foraging out from spatially confined waterholes during the dry season in the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park, Botswana. Since it was essential to investigate directed movement over a range of spatial scales to determine the correct movement behaviour and strategy, we used Nams's scaling test for oriented movement. Zebras followed directed movement paths in the lower to medium spatial scales (10 m–3.7 km) and above their visual, and possibly olfactory, range. The spatial scale of directed movement suggests that zebras had a well-defined spatial awareness and cognitive ability. Seven zebras used directed movement paths, but the remaining two followed paths not significantly different to a correlated random walk (CRW). At large spatial scales (>3 km) no distinct movement pattern could be identified and paths could not be distinguished from a CRW. Foraging strategy affected the extent of directed movement: zebras with a confined dispersion of grazing patches around the central place directed their movements over a longer distance. Zebras may extend the distance at which they can direct their movement after improving their knowledge of the local environment.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	6148
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	Author	Griffin, A.S.
	Title	Socially acquired predator avoidance: Is it just classical conditioning?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Brain Research Bulletin	Abbreviated Journal	Special Issue:Brain Mechanisms, Cognition and Behaviour in Birds
	Volume	76	Issue	3	Pages	264-271
	Keywords	Learning; Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning; Social learning; Ecological specialization; General process theory; Ecology; Predation; Backward conditioning
	Abstract	Associative learning theories presume the existence of a general purpose learning process, the structure of which does not mirror the demands of any particular learning problem. In contrast, learning scientists working within an Evolutionary Biology tradition believe that learning processes have been shaped by ecological demands. One potential means of exploring how ecology may have modified properties of acquisition is to use associative learning theory as a framework within which to analyse a particular learning phenomenon. Recent work has used this approach to examine whether socially transmitted predator avoidance can be conceptualised as a classical conditioning process in which a novel predator stimulus acts as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and acquires control over an avoidance response after it has become associated with alarm signals of social companions, the unconditioned stimulus (US). I review here a series of studies examining the effect of CS/US presentation timing on the likelihood of acquisition. Results suggest that socially acquired predator avoidance may be less sensitive to forward relationships than traditional classical conditioning paradigms. I make the case that socially acquired predator avoidance is an exciting novel one-trial learning paradigm that could be studied along side fear conditioning. Comparisons between social and non-social learning of danger at both the behavioural and neural level may yield a better understanding of how ecology might shape properties and mechanisms of learning.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0361-9230	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4697
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	Author	Behrens, T.E.J.; Hunt, L.T.; Woolrich, M.W.; Rushworth, M.F.S.
	Title	Associative learning of social value			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication		Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	456	Issue	7219	Pages	245-249
	Keywords
	Abstract	Our decisions are guided by information learnt from our environment. This information may come via personal experiences of reward, but also from the behaviour of social partners1, 2. Social learning is widely held to be distinct from other forms of learning in its mechanism and neural implementation; it is often assumed to compete with simpler mechanisms, such as reward-based associative learning, to drive behaviour3. Recently, neural signals have been observed during social exchange reminiscent of signals seen in studies of associative learning4. Here we demonstrate that social information may be acquired using the same associative processes assumed to underlie reward-based learning. We find that key computational variables for learning in the social and reward domains are processed in a similar fashion, but in parallel neural processing streams. Two neighbouring divisions of the anterior cingulate cortex were central to learning about social and reward-based information, and for determining the extent to which each source of information guides behaviour. When making a decision, however, the information learnt using these parallel streams was combined within ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest that human social valuation can be realized by means of the same associative processes previously established for learning other, simpler, features of the environment.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-0836	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	10.1038/nature07538			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4681
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	Author	Hemelrijk, C.K.; Hildenbrandt, H.
	Title	Self-Organized Shape and Frontal Density of Fish Schools			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Ethology	Abbreviated Journal	Ethology
	Volume	114	Issue	3	Pages	245-254
	Keywords
	Abstract	Abstract Models of swarming (based on avoidance, alignment and attraction) produce patterns of behaviour also seen in schools of fish. However, the significance of such similarities has been questioned, because some model assumptions are unrealistic [e.g. speed in most models is constant with random error, the perception is global and the size of the schools that have been studied is small (up to 128 individuals)]. This criticism also applies to our former model, in which we demonstrated the emergence of two patterns of spatial organization, i.e. oblong school form and high frontal density, which are supposed to function as protection against predators. In our new model we respond to this criticism by making the following improvements: individuals have a preferred ‘cruise speed’ from which they can deviate in order to avoid others or to catch up with them. Their range of perception is inversely related to density, with which we take into account that high density limits the perception of others that are further away. Swarm sizes range from 10 to 2000 individuals. The model is three-dimensional. Further, we show that the two spatial patterns (oblong shape and high frontal density) emerge by self-organization as a side-effect of coordination at two speeds (of two or four body lengths per second) for schools of sizes above 20. Our analysis of the model leads to the development of a new set of hypotheses. If empirical data confirm these hypotheses, then in a school of real fish these patterns may arise as a side-effect of their coordination in the same way as in the model.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Blackwell Publishing Ltd	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1439-0310	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5202
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	Author	Menke, C.; Waiblinger, S.; Fölsch, D.W.; Wiepkema, P.R.
	Title	Social Behaviour and Injuries of Horned Cows in Loose Housing Systems			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Animal Welfare	Abbreviated Journal	Anim Welfare
	Volume	8	Issue	3	Pages	243-258
	Keywords	ANIMAL WELFARE; HORNED DAIRY COWS; HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP; INJURIES; LOOSE HOUSING; MANAGEMENT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
	Abstract	The relationship between social behaviour and skin injuries (caused by horns) of loose housed horned cows was investigated on 35 dairy farms. While the frequencies of two agonistic behaviour elements (push and chase away) were positively correlated with the occurrence of skin injuries, the frequencies of butting and homing were not. Butting appears to have an ambivalent motivation, in that its occurrence is correlated positively both with agonistic behaviour and with social licking. Horning showed a positive correlation with social licking only. Four groups of husbandry conditions that may be associated with the occurrence of social behaviour and of injuries were distinguished: i) herd management, with variables including problem solving management by the farmer, integration of new cows, and dealing with periparturient and oestrus cows; ii) human-animal relationship, with variables including ability to identify individual cows, frequency of brushing the cows, number of milkers, and frequency of personnel changes; iii) animal characteristics, with the variable of herd size; and iv) stable characteristics, with the variable of space per cow (m2). The relevance of the husbandry variables investigated here had been confirmed in a previous stepwise regression analysis (Menke 1996). The variables for herd management and human-animal relationship conditions correlated in a consistent way with the occurrence of agonistic behaviour and/or of injuries, while most of them also correlated in the opposite direction with the occurrence of social licking. Herd size correlated positively with agonistic behaviour, but negatively with social licking. Space per cow correlated negatively with agonistic behaviour and injuries. In more than 70 per cent of the herds investigated, the levels of agonistic behaviour and of skin injuries were low, implying that horned dairy cows can be kept with less risk than is often assumed. We argue that such risks strongly depend on management factors that can be improved.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	yes
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5110
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	Author	Knubben, J.M.; Fürst, A.; Gygax, L.; Stauffacher, M.
	Title	Bite and kick injuries in horses: Prevalence, risk factors and prevention			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Equine Veterinary Journal	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	40	Issue	3	Pages	219-223
	Keywords	horse; kick; bite; injury; risk factors
	Abstract	Reasons for performing study: Studies on the prevalence and predisposing factors of bite and kick injuries in horses have not been reported in a population-based data sample. Objectives: To investigate the prevalence of bite and kick injuries in horses and associated risk factors in a representative sample of horses in Switzerland. Methods: A questionnaire on the incidence of disease and injury, which included the frequency of bite and kick injuries and their association with breed, housing, use and feeding regime, was sent to 2559 horse owners randomly selected throughout Switzerland. Results: The data of 2912 horses with 897 disorders diagnosed by a veterinarian were analysed. There were 231 injuries, 50 (21.6%) caused by a bite or kick from another horse; this number corresponded to 5.6% of all diseases and injuries and concerned only 1.7% of all the horses evaluated. Warmblood, Thoroughbred and Arabian horses had a 4.3 times higher risk of bite or kick injuries than horses of other breeds. Eighteen per cent of injuries were associated with a change in housing management and occurred regardless of whether horses were kept in groups permanently or sporadically. Conclusions and potential relevance: A stable group hierarchy and a housing system that provides adequate space and is adapted to horse-specific behaviour are important factors in prevention and kick and bite injuries.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Blackwell Publishing Ltd	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	2042-3306	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5760
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	Author	Siegel, J.M.
	Title	Do all animals sleep?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Trends in Neurosciences	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	31	Issue	4	Pages	208-213
	Keywords
	Abstract	Some animals never exhibit a state that meets the behavioral definition of sleep. Others suspend or greatly reduce ‘sleep’ behavior for many weeks during the postpartum period or during seasonal migrations without any consequent ‘sleep debt.’ Rats die from one form of sleep deprivation, but sleep loss has not been shown to cause death in well-controlled studies in other vertebrate species. Some marine mammal species do not show evidence for REM sleep, and convincing evidence for this state in reptiles, fish and insects is lacking. The enormous variation in the nature of rest and sleep states across the animal kingdom and within the mammalian class has important implications for understanding the evolution and functions of sleep.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0166-2236	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5613
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	Author	McGrogan, C.; Hutchison, M.D.; King, J.E.
	Title	Dimensions of horse personality based on owner and trainer supplied personality traits			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	113	Issue	1	Pages	206-214
	Keywords	Horse; Personality; Domestication; Five-factor model
	Abstract	Ratings on 36 personality descriptive adjectives were made on 100 companion horses by owners, trainers, and stable managers. The descriptors had been previously provided by a subset of 30 raters based on their own experience with horses. Principal components analysis revealed three statistically significant factors accounting for 59% of the variance. The first was a large, complex factor resembling the human Agreeableness factor. This factor contained four clusters of items reflecting obedience, kindness, sociality, and non-aggressiveness. The second factor resembled human Extraversion, although it also contained items reflecting intellect and curiosity. The third factor reflected Neuroticism or Emotionality. Factors similar to Agreeableness, Extraversion, and Emotionality are frequently observed in other taxa. The diverse composition of the Agreeableness factor indicating covariation among obedience, kindness, sociality, and non-aggressiveness may be a result of the intense artificial selection for all four components during the 6000 years of horse domestication.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Admin @ knut @			Serial	4337
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	Author	Bates, L.A.; Lee, P.C.; Njiraini, N.; Poole, J.H.; Sayialel, K.; Sayialel, S.; Moss, C.J.; Byrne, R.
	Title	Do Elephants Show Empathy?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Journal of Consciousness Studies	Abbreviated Journal	J Conscious Stud
	Volume	15	Issue	10-11	Pages	204-225
	Keywords
	Abstract	Elephants show a rich social organization and display a number of unusual traits. In this paper, we analyse reports collected over a thirty-five year period, describing behaviour that has the potential to reveal signs of empathic understanding. These include coalition formation, the offering of protection and comfort to others, retrieving and 'babysitting' calves, aiding individuals that would otherwise have difficulty in moving, and removing foreign objects attached to others. These records demonstrate that an elephant is capable of diagnosing animacy and goal directedness, and is able to understand the physical competence, emotional state and intentions of others, when they differ from its own. We argue that an empathic understanding of others is the simplest explanation of these abilities, and discuss reasons why elephants appear to show empathy more than other non-primate species.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	yes
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5057
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