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	Author	Janik, V.M.
	Title	Whistle matching in wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2000	Publication	Science (New York, N.Y.)	Abbreviated Journal	Science
	Volume	289	Issue	5483	Pages	1355-1357
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild/physiology; Dolphins/physiology; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Social Behavior; *Vocalization, Animal
	Abstract	Dolphin communication is suspected to be complex, on the basis of their call repertoires, cognitive abilities, and ability to modify signals through vocal learning. Because of the difficulties involved in observing and recording individual cetaceans, very little is known about how they use their calls. This report shows that wild, unrestrained bottlenose dolphins use their learned whistles in matching interactions, in which an individual responds to a whistle of a conspecific by emitting the same whistle type. Vocal matching occurred over distances of up to 580 meters and is indicative of animals addressing each other individually.
	Address	School of Biology, University of St. Andrews, Bute Building, Fife KY16 9TS, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0036-8075	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10958783			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	550
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	Author	Dorrance, B.R.; Zentall, T.R.
	Title	Imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) depends on the motivational state of the observer quail at the time of observation			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	115	Issue	1	Pages	62-67
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Coturnix; Female; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; *Motivation; Reinforcement (Psychology); Time Factors
	Abstract	The 2-action method was used to examine whether imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) depends on the motivational state of the observer quail at the time of observation of the demonstrated behavior. Two groups of observers were fed before observation (satiated groups), whereas 2 other groups of observers were deprived of food before observation (hungry groups). Quail were tested either immediately following observation or after a 30-min delay. Results indicated that quail in the hungry groups imitated, whereas those in the satiated groups did not, regardless of whether their test was immediate or delayed. The results suggest that observer quail may not learn (through observation) behavior that leads to a reinforcer for which they are unmotivated at the time of test. In addition, the results show that quail are able to delay the performance of a response acquired through observation (i.e., they show deferred imitation).
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506-0044, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11334220			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	245
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	Author	Stoinski, T.S.; Wrate, J.L.; Ure, N.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Imitative learning by captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a simulated food-processing task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	115	Issue	3	Pages	272-281
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Discrimination Learning; Feeding Behavior/physiology; Gorilla gorilla; *Imitative Behavior; Social Behavior
	Abstract	Although field studies have suggested the existence of cultural transmission of foraging techniques in primates, identification of transmission mechanisms has remained elusive. To test experimentally for evidence of imitation in the current study, we exposed gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to an artificial fruit foraging task designed by A. Whiten and D. M. Custance (1996). Gorillas (n=6) watched a human model remove a series of 3 defenses around a fruit. Each of the defenses was removed using 1 of 2 alternative techniques. Subsequent video analysis of gorillas' behavior showed a significant tendency to copy the observed technique on 1 of the individual defenses and the direction of removal on another defense. This is the first statistically reliable evidence of imitation in gorillas. Sequence of defense removal was not replicated. The gorillas' responses were most similar to those of chimpanzees.
	Address	TECHlab, Zoo Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA. stoinskit@mindspring.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11594496			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	738
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	Author	Bjorklund, D.F.; Yunger, J.L.; Bering, J.M.; Ragan, P.
	Title	The generalization of deferred imitation in enculturated chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	1	Pages	49-58
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Pan troglodytes/physiology/psychology; Parenting; Species Specificity
	Abstract	Deferred imitation of object-related actions and generalization of imitation to similar but not identical tasks was assessed in three human-reared (enculturated) chimpanzees, ranging in age from 5 to 9 years. Each ape displayed high levels of deferred imitation and only slightly lower levels of generalization of imitation. The youngest two chimpanzees were more apt to generalize the model's actions when they had displayed portions of the target behaviors at baseline, consistent with the idea that learning is more likely to occur when working within the “zone of proximal development.” We argue that generalization of imitation is the best evidence to date of imitative learning in chimpanzees.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0991, USA. dbjorklund@fau.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11957402			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2610
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	Author	Dorrance, B.R.; Zentall, T.R.
	Title	Imitation of conditional discriminations in pigeons (Columba livia)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	116	Issue	3	Pages	277-285
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Columbidae; Conditioning (Psychology)/physiology; Discrimination Learning/physiology; Habituation, Psychophysiologic; *Imitative Behavior; Light; Reinforcement (Psychology)
	Abstract	In the present experiments, the 2-action method was used to determine whether pigeons could learn to imitate a conditional discrimination. Demonstrator pigeons (Columba livia) stepped on a treadle in the presence of 1 light and pecked at the treadle in the presence of another light. Demonstration did not seem to affect acquisition of the conditional discrimination (Experiment 1) but did facilitate its reversal of the conditional discrimination (Experiments 2 and 3). The results suggest that pigeons are not only able to learn a specific behavior by observing another pigeon, but they can also learn under which circumstances to perform that behavior. The results have implications for proposed mechanisms of imitation in animals.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois 61201, USA. psdorrance@augustana.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12234078			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	240
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	Author	Akins, C.K.; Klein, E.D.; Zentall, T.R.
	Title	Imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) using the bidirectional control procedure			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal learning & behavior	Abbreviated Journal	Anim Learn Behav
	Volume	30	Issue	3	Pages	275-281
	Keywords	Animals; Attention; Behavior, Animal; Coturnix; Discrimination Learning; Imitative Behavior; Male; Smell
	Abstract	In the bidirectional control procedure, observers are exposed to a conspecific demonstrator responding to a manipulandum in one of two directions (e.g., left vs. right). This procedure controls for socially mediated effects (the mere presence of a conspecific) and stimulus enhancement (attention drawn to a manipulandum by its movement), and it has the added advantage of being symmetrical (the two different responses are similar in topography). Imitative learning is demonstrated when the observers make the response in the direction that they observed it being made. Recently, however, it has been suggested that when such evidence is found with a predominantly olfactory animal, such as the rat, it may result artifactually from odor cues left on one side of the manipulandum by the demonstrator. In the present experiment, we found that Japanese quail, for which odor cues are not likely to play a role, also showed significant correspondence between the direction in which the demonstrator and the observer push a screen to gain access to reward. Furthermore, control quail that observed the screen move, when the movement of the screen was not produced by the demonstrator, did not show similar correspondence between the direction of screen movement observed and that performed by the observer. Thus, with the appropriate control, the bidirectional procedure appears to be useful for studying imitation in avian species.
	Address	University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0090-4996	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12391793			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	239
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	Author	Caldwell, C.A.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Evolutionary perspectives on imitation: is a comparative psychology of social learning possible?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	4	Pages	193-208
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Evolution; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Models, Animal
	Abstract	Studies of imitation in animals have become numerous in recent times, but do they contribute to a comparative psychology of social learning? We review this burgeoning field to identify the problems and prospects for such a goal. Difficulties of two main kinds are identified. First, researchers have tackled questions about social learning from at least three very different theoretical perspectives, the “phylogenetic”, “animal model”, and “adaptational”. We examine the conflicts between them and consider the scope for integration. A second difficulty arises in the methodological approaches used in the discipline. In relation to one of these – survey reviews of published studies – we tabulate and compare the contrasting conclusions of nine articles that together review 36 studies. The basis for authors' disagreements, including the matters of perceptual opacity, novelty, sequential structure, and goal representation, are examined. In relation to the other key method, comparative experimentation, we identify 12 studies that have explicitly compared species' imitative ability on similar tasks. We examine the principal problems of comparing like with like in these studies and consider solutions, the most powerful of which we propose to be the use of a systematic range of task designs, rather than any single “gold standard” task.
	Address	School of Psychology, Washington Singer Laboratories, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK. C.A.Caldwell@exeter.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12461597			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2593
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	Author	Ray, E.D.; Heyes, C.M.
	Title	Do rats in a two-action test encode movement egocentrically or allocentrically?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	4	Pages	245-252
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Discrimination Learning; Imitative Behavior; Male; Random Allocation; Rats/physiology/psychology; Smell
	Abstract	Two-action tests of imitation compare groups that observe topographically different responses to a common manipulandum. The general aim of the two experiments reported here was to find a demonstrator-consistent responding effect in a procedure that could be elaborated to investigate aspects of what was learned about the demonstrated lever response. Experiment 1 was a pilot study with rats of a variant of the two-action method of investigating social learning about observed responses. Groups of observer rats ( Rattus norvegicus) saw a demonstrator push a lever up or down for a food reward. When these observers were subsequently given access to the lever and rewarded for responses in both directions, their directional preferences were compared with two 'screen control' groups that were unable to see their demonstrators' behaviour. Demonstrator-consistent responding was found to be restricted to observers that were able to see demonstrator performance, suggesting that scent cues alone were insufficient to cue a preference for the demonstrators' response direction and thereby that the rats learned by observation about body movements (imitation) or lever movement (emulation). Experiment 2 assessed responding on two levers, one that had been manipulated by the demonstrator, and a second, transposed lever positioned some distance away. Demonstrator-consistent responding was abolished when actions were observed and performed in different parts of the apparatus, suggesting that observed movement was encoded allocentrically with respect to the apparatus rather than egocentrically with respect to the actor's body. With particular reference to the influence of scent cues, the results are discussed in relation to the strengths and weaknesses of this and other varieties of the two-action procedure as tests of imitation in animals and human infants.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK. e.ray@ucl.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12461602			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2588
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	Author	Biro, D.; Inoue-Nakamura, N.; Tonooka, R.; Yamakoshi, G.; Sousa, C.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Cultural innovation and transmission of tool use in wild chimpanzees: evidence from field experiments			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	213-223
	Keywords	Animals; Cooking and Eating Utensils; Culture; Diffusion of Innovation; Feeding Behavior/psychology; Female; Functional Laterality; Imitative Behavior; Male; Motor Skills; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Social Environment
	Abstract	Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are the most proficient and versatile users of tools in the wild. How such skills become integrated into the behavioural repertoire of wild chimpanzee communities is investigated here by drawing together evidence from three complementary approaches in a group of oil-palm nut- ( Elaeis guineensis) cracking chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. First, extensive surveys of communities adjacent to Bossou have shown that population-specific details of tool use, such as the selection of species of nuts as targets for cracking, cannot be explained purely on the basis of ecological differences. Second, a 16-year longitudinal record tracing the development of nut-cracking in individual chimpanzees has highlighted the importance of a critical period for learning (3-5 years of age), while the similar learning contexts experienced by siblings have been found to result in near-perfect (13 out of 14 dyads) inter-sibling correspondence in laterality. Third, novel data from field experiments involving the introduction of unfamiliar species of nuts to the Bossou group illuminates key aspects of both cultural innovation and transmission. We show that responses of individuals toward the novel items differ markedly with age, with juveniles being the most likely to explore. Furthermore, subjects are highly specific in their selection of conspecifics as models for observation, attending to the nut-cracking activities of individuals in the same age group or older, but not younger than themselves. Together with the phenomenon of inter-community migration, these results demonstrate a mechanism for the emergence of culture in wild chimpanzees.
	Address	Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan. dora.biro@zoology.oxford.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Springer-Verlag	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12898285			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2560
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	Author	Sousa, C.; Okamoto, S.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Behavioural development in a matching-to-sample task and token use by an infant chimpanzee reared by his mother			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	259-267
	Keywords	Animals; Cognition; Discrimination Learning; Female; Imitative Behavior; Male; Mothers/psychology; Pan troglodytes/growth & development/psychology; *Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	We investigated the behavioural and cognitive development of a captive male infant chimpanzee, Ayumu, raised by his mother, Ai. Here we report Ayumu's achievements up to the age of 2 years and 3 months, in the context of complex computer-controlled tasks. From soon after birth, Ayumu had been present during an experiment performed by his mother. The task consisted of two phases, a matching-to-sample task in which she received token rewards, and the insertion of these tokens into a vending machine to obtain food rewards. Ayumu himself received no reward or encouragement from humans for any of the actions he exhibited during the experiment. At the age of 9 months and 3 weeks, Ayumu performed his first matching-to-sample trial. At around 1 year and 3 months, he began to perform them consistently. Also during this period, he frequently stole food rewards from his mother. At 2 years and 3 months, Ayumu succeeded for the first time in inserting a token into the vending machine. Once he had succeeded in using a token, he performed both phases of the task in sequence 20 times consecutively. The infant's behaviour was not shaped by food rewards but by a strong motivation to copy his mother's behaviour. Our observations of Ayumu thus mirror the learning processes shown by wild chimpanzees.
	Address	Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama Aichi 484-8506, Japan. csousa@fcsh.unl.pt
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:13680400			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2556
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