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	Author	Iversen, I.H.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Acquisition of navigation by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an automated fingermaze task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	4	Issue	3	Pages	179-192
	Keywords
	Abstract	These experiments investigated how chimpanzees learn to navigate visual fingermazes presented on a touch monitor. The aim was to determine whether training the subjects to solve several different mazes would establish a generalized map-reading skill such that they would solve new mazes correctly on the first presentation. In experiment 1, two captive adult female chimpanzees were trained to move a visual object (a ball) with a finger over the monitor surface toward a target through a grid of obstacles that formed a maze. The task was fully automated with storage of movement paths on individual trials. Training progressed from very simple mazes with one obstacle to complex mazes with several obstacles. The subjects learned to move the ball to the target in a curved path so as to avoid obstacles and blind alleys. After training on several mazes, both subjects developed a high level of efficiency in moving the ball to the target in a path that closely approached the ideal shortest path. New mazes were then presented to determine whether the subjects had acquired a more generalized maze-solving performance. The subjects solved 65–100% of the new mazes the first time they were presented by moving the ball around obstacles to the target without making detours into blind alleys. In experiment 2, one of the chimpanzees was trained using mazes with two routes to the target. One of the routes was blocked at one of many possible locations. After training to avoid the blind alley in different mazes, new mazes were presented that also had one route blocked. The subject correctly solved 90.7% of the novel mazes. When the mazes had one short and one long open route to the target the subject preferred the shorter route. When the short route was blocked, the subject solved only 53.3% of the mazes because of the preference for the shorter route even when blocked. The overall results suggest that with the training methods used the subjects learned to solve specific mazes with a trial-and-error method. Although both subjects were able to solve many of the novel mazes they did not fully develop a more general “map-reading” skill.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
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	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3160
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	Author	Biro, D.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Use of numerical symbols by the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes): Cardinals, ordinals, and the introduction of zero			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	4	Issue	3	Pages	193-199
	Keywords
	Abstract	An adult female chimpanzee with previous training in the use of Arabic numerals 1–9 was introduced to the meaning of “zero” in the context of three different numerical tasks. The first two were cardinal tasks where the subject was required either to select numerals corresponding to the number of items presented on a computer screen (productive use of numerals) or to match sets of the appropriate size to numerals presented as samples (receptive use). The third task addressed the ordinal meaning of the same symbols where the subject was required to respond to numerals sequentially, arranging them into an ascending series. The subject mastered the recognition of the meaning of zero in all three tasks. However, details of her usage of the symbol revealed that transfer of the meaning between different kinds of tasks was incomplete, suggesting that the level of ion characteristic of human numerical ability was not attained in the chimpanzee. Over the course of acquisition leading to the high levels of accuracy eventually observed, the newly introduced zero appeared to shift along the length of a continuous numerical scale toward the lower end, while confusions with 1 remained the most frequently encountered mistakes. Such patterns of error thus suggest that Ai's understanding of the meaning of zero in relation to the rest of the number symbols was not consistent with an “absence of items versus presence of items” scheme.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3251
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	Author	Sousa, C.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	The use of tokens as rewards and tools by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	4	Issue	3	Pages	213-221
	Keywords
	Abstract	This paper explores the effectiveness of token rewards in maintaining chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes) in working at intellectually costly tasks, and studies the “saving” behavior of the subjects, investigating the factors that can condition it. Two experiments were run. Tokens were introduced as rewards in a matching-to-sample task and used as exchange tools for food by three adult female chimpanzees. Subjects' performances were maintained at constant high levels of accuracy, suggesting that the tokens were almost equivalent to direct food rewards. The results also showed the emergence of saving behavior. The subjects spontaneously saved the tokens during the matching-to-sample task before exchanging them for food. The chimpanzees also learned a new symbolic discrimination task, with tokens as the reward. During this learning process a rarely reported phenomenon emerged: one of the subjects showed symmetry, a form of stimulus equivalence.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3280
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	Author	Matsuzawa, T.; Tomonaga, M.
	Title	For a rise of comparative cognitive science			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	4	Issue	3	Pages	133-135
	Keywords
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
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	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3299
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	Author	Hirata, S.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Tactics to obtain a hidden food item in chimpanzee pairs (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	4	Issue	3	Pages	285-295
	Keywords
	Abstract	Five dyads of chimpanzees were tested in a competitive situation, as a pilot study to examine chimpanzees' understanding of conspecifics' knowledge. A human experimenter baited one of five containers in an outdoor enclosure. Chimpanzee A (witness) could see where the food was hidden, while chimpanzee B (witness-of-witness) could not see the baited place but could observe the chimpanzee A watching the food being hidden. Then the two were released into the enclosure. This procedure was repeated for a certain number of days along with a control condition in which neither could see the baited location. The witness-of-witness developed tactics to forestall the witness in two pairs. The witness misled the witness-of-witness by taking a route to an empty container in several cases. These episodes might represent examples of deception. Tactics and counter-tactics thus developed through the interaction between the witness and the witness-of-witness, illustrating the high social intelligence of chimpanzees. An examination of the changes in tactics suggests a possibility that the witness-of-witness understands the witness's knowledge of the location of hidden food.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
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	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3313
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	Author	Tomonaga, M.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Sequential responding to arabic numerals with wild cards by the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2000	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	3	Issue	1	Pages	1-11
	Keywords
	Abstract	One adult female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) was trained to respond serially to three arabic numerals between 1 and 9, presented on a cathode-ray-tube (CRT) screen. To examine the factors affecting her sequential responding behavior, wild-card items were added to the three-item sequences. When this wild-card item remained until the subject responded to the last numeral (i.e., the terminator condition), her response to the terminator at each point of the sequence was controlled by the ordinal distance between numerals. Thus, the number of responses to the terminator increased as the ordinal distance between numerals increased. When the wild-card item was eliminated by the subject's response (wild-card conditions), the probability of responses to the wild card before the first numeral increased as a function of the serial position of the first numeral. These results were consistent with previous studies of response time and suggest both serial position and symbolic distance effects. It is suggested that the subject might form the integrated 9-item linear representations by training of possible subsets of three-item sequences. Knowledge concerning the ordinal position of each numeral was established through this training.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
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	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3373
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	Author	Tanaka, M.; Tomonaga, M.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Finger drawing by infant chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	245-251
	Keywords	Animals; Art; Female; Fingers; Gestures; Male; Motor Skills/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology/psychology
	Abstract	We introduced a new technique to investigate the development of scribbling in very young infants. We tested three infant chimpanzees to compare the developmental processes of scribbling between humans and chimpanzees. While human infants start to scribble on paper at around the age of 18 months, our 13- to 23-month-old infant chimpanzees had never been observed scribbling prior to this study. We used a notebook computer with a touch-sensitive screen. This apparatus was able to record the location of the subjects' touches on the screen. Each touch generated a fingertip-sized dot at the corresponding on-screen location. During spontaneous interactions with this apparatus, all three infants and two mother chimpanzees left scribbles with their fingers on the screen. The scribbles contained not only simple dots or short lines, but also curves and hook-like lines or loops, most of which were observed in the instrumental drawings of adult chimpanzees. The results suggest that perceptual-motor control for finger drawing develops in infant chimpanzees. Two of the infants performed their first scribble with a marker on paper at the age of 20-23 months. Just prior to this, they showed a rapid increase in combinatory manipulation of objects. These findings suggest that the development of combinatory manipulation of objects as well as that of perceptual-motor control may be necessary for the emergence of instrumental drawing on paper.
	Address	Section of Language and Intelligence, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41 Kanrin, 484-8506 Inuyama, Aichi, Japan. mtanaka@pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14605946			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2551
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	Author	Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	The Ai project: historical and ecological contexts			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	199-211
	Keywords	Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Culture; Discrimination Learning; Ecology; Female; History, 20th Century; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; Pan troglodytes/*psychology; Research/history
	Abstract	This paper aims to review a long-term research project exploring the chimpanzee mind within historical and ecological contexts. The Ai project began in 1978 and was directly inspired by preceding ape-language studies conducted in Western countries. However, in contrast with the latter, it has focused on the perceptual and cognitive capabilities of chimpanzees rather than communicative skills between humans and chimpanzees. In the original setting, a single chimpanzee faced a computer-controlled apparatus and performed various kinds of matching-to-sample discrimination tasks. Questions regarding the chimpanzee mind can be traced back to Wolfgang Koehler's work in the early part of the 20th century. Yet, Japan has its unique natural and cultural background: it is home to an indigenous primate species, the Japanese snow monkey. This fact has contributed to the emergence of two previous projects in the wild led by the late Kinji Imanishi and his students. First, the Koshima monkey project began in 1948 and became famous for its discovery of the cultural propagation of sweet-potato washing behavior. Second, pioneering work in Africa, starting in 1958, aimed to study great apes in their natural habitat. Thanks to the influence of these intellectual ancestors, the present author also undertook the field study of chimpanzees in the wild, focusing on tool manufacture and use. This work has demonstrated the importance of social and ecological perspectives even for the study of the mind. Combining experimental approaches with a field setting, the Ai project continues to explore cognition and behavior in chimpanzees, while its focus has shifted from the study of a single subject toward that of the community as a whole.
	Address	Section of Language and Intelligence, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan. matsuzaw@pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14566577			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2552
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	Author	Sousa, C.; Okamoto, S.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Behavioural development in a matching-to-sample task and token use by an infant chimpanzee reared by his mother			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	259-267
	Keywords	Animals; Cognition; Discrimination Learning; Female; Imitative Behavior; Male; Mothers/psychology; Pan troglodytes/growth & development/psychology; *Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	We investigated the behavioural and cognitive development of a captive male infant chimpanzee, Ayumu, raised by his mother, Ai. Here we report Ayumu's achievements up to the age of 2 years and 3 months, in the context of complex computer-controlled tasks. From soon after birth, Ayumu had been present during an experiment performed by his mother. The task consisted of two phases, a matching-to-sample task in which she received token rewards, and the insertion of these tokens into a vending machine to obtain food rewards. Ayumu himself received no reward or encouragement from humans for any of the actions he exhibited during the experiment. At the age of 9 months and 3 weeks, Ayumu performed his first matching-to-sample trial. At around 1 year and 3 months, he began to perform them consistently. Also during this period, he frequently stole food rewards from his mother. At 2 years and 3 months, Ayumu succeeded for the first time in inserting a token into the vending machine. Once he had succeeded in using a token, he performed both phases of the task in sequence 20 times consecutively. The infant's behaviour was not shaped by food rewards but by a strong motivation to copy his mother's behaviour. Our observations of Ayumu thus mirror the learning processes shown by wild chimpanzees.
	Address	Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama Aichi 484-8506, Japan. csousa@fcsh.unl.pt
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:13680400			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2556
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	Author	Hayashi, M.; Matsuzawa, T.
	Title	Cognitive development in object manipulation by infant chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	225-233
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Child Development/physiology; Child, Preschool; Cognition/physiology; Female; Growth; Humans; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Infant; Learning/physiology; Male; Mothers/psychology; Motor Skills/physiology; Pan troglodytes/growth & development/psychology; Psychomotor Performance/*physiology; Species Specificity
	Abstract	This study focuses on the development of spontaneous object manipulation in three infant chimpanzees during their first 2 years of life. The three infants were raised by their biological mothers who lived among a group of chimpanzees. A human tester conducted a series of cognitive tests in a triadic situation where mothers collaborated with the researcher during the testing of the infants. Four tasks were presented, taken from normative studies of cognitive development of Japanese infants: inserting objects into corresponding holes in a box, seriating nesting cups, inserting variously shaped objects into corresponding holes in a template, and stacking up wooden blocks. The mothers had already acquired skills to perform these manipulation tasks. The infants were free to observe the mothers' manipulative behavior from immediately after birth. We focused on object-object combinations that were made spontaneously by the infant chimpanzees, without providing food reinforcement for any specific behavior that the infants performed. The three main findings can be summarized as follows. First, there was precocious appearance of object-object combination in infant chimpanzees: the age of onset (8-11 months) was comparable to that in humans (around 10 months old). Second, object-object combinations in chimpanzees remained at a low frequency between 11 and 16 months, then increased dramatically at the age of approximately 1.5 years. At the same time, the accuracy of these object-object combinations also increased. Third, chimpanzee infants showed inserting behavior frequently and from an early age but they did not exhibit stacking behavior during their first 2 years of life, in clear contrast to human data.
	Address	Section of Language and Intelligence, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, 41 Kanrin, Inuyama, 484-8506 Aichi, Japan. misato@pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12905079			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2559
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