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Rivera, E.; Benjamin, S.; Nielsen, B.; Shelle, J.; Zanella, A.J. |
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Title |
Behavioral and physiological responses of horses to initial training: the comparison between pastured versus stalled horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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235-252 |
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Horses; Housing; Training; Behavior; Stress; Cortisol; Welfare |
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Horses kept in stalls are deprived of opportunities for social interactions, and the performance of natural behaviors is limited. Inadequate environmental conditions may compromise behavioral development. Initial training is a complex process and it is likely that the responses of horses may be affected by housing conditions. Sixteen 2-year-old Arabian horses were kept on pasture (P) (n=8) or in individual stalls (S) (n=8). Twelve horses (six P and six S) were subjected to a standardized training procedure, carried out by two trainers in a round pen, and 4 horses (two P and two S) were introduced to the round pen but were not trained (C; control). On sample collection day 0, 7, 21 and 28, behavior observations were carried out, blood samples were drawn and heart rates were monitored. Total training time for the stalled horses was significantly higher than total time for the pastured horses (S: 26.4+/-1.5 min; P: 19.7+/-1.1; P=0.032). The stalled group required more time to habituate to the activities occurring from the start of training to mounting (S: 11.4+/-0.96; P: 7.3+/-0.75 min; P=0.007). Frequency of unwanted behavior was higher in the stalled horses (S: 8.0+/-2.0; P: 2.2+/-1.0; P=0.020). Pastured horses tended to have higher basal heart rates on day 0 (S: 74.7+/-4.8; P: 81.8+/-5.3 bpm; P=0.0771). While the physiological data failed to identify differences between housing groups, the behavioral data suggest that pasture-kept horses adapt more easily to training than stalled horses. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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717 |
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Simpson, B.S. |
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Title |
Neonatal foal handling |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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Volume |
78 |
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2-4 |
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303-317 |
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Neonatal foal handling; Imprint training; Learning in foals; Heart rate; Serum cortisol concentrations |
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Recent interest has focused on the advantage of intensively handling young foals as a means of producing more tractable horses, accustomed to humans and receptive to training. To date, the effect of this intensive handling, dubbed “imprint training” in the popular literature, has not been tested. The present study compares seven foals handled intensively as neonates with eight untreated controls. The handling protocol started from 2-8 h after birth and continued daily for a total of 5 days. The protocol consisted of a series of stimuli and experiences that were each repeated until the foal no longer resisted or reacted negatively. Subsequently, foals were tested before weaning, at 4 months of age. Results indicated that handled foals (HF) ranked higher than control foals (CF) in subjective ratings of calmness (*P<0.0117) and friendliness (*P<0.0001) and in several specific handling tasks (venipuncture *P<0.0220; placing in stock *P<0.0128). Although, in approach tests all foals but one allowed approach of a person to 4 m, significantly more HF approached the person than CF (P<0.0080). In stimulus tests, foals were presented specific stimuli to which they had been tested as neonates. Two of eight CF were too unruly and dangerous to test. Of foals that could be tested, CF required significantly more time to hook-up a heart rate monitor (**P<0.0055). Split-plot analysis indicated that HF had lower heart rates to initial left-sided stimuli, presented first, than CF (*P<0.0421). In response to right-sided stimuli, heart rate scores of CF were not significantly different from HF (P<0.2259), suggesting reduced reactivity over time due to a learning effect. Behavioral responses to specific stimuli did not differ between CF and HF, suggesting that neonatal handling has a general rather than specific effect on subsequent behavior. Cortisol concentrations were measured before and after testing and the difference calculated. All foals had higher post-testing levels than pre-testing levels. There was a significant difference between HF and CF, indicating greater reactivity among the CF (*P<0.050). In general, the results indicated that foals handled as neonates were more tractable and less reactive. Specific neonatal handling tasks, such as sticking a finger up the foal's nose or patting the bottom of the foot, seemed to have no beneficial effect on related tasks such as passing a nasogastric tube or tapping with a farrier's hammer at 4 months of age. Mechanisms for the observed effect of neonatal handling require further investigation. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3623 |
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Dalmau, A.; Ferret, A.; Chacon, G.; Manteca, X. |
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Title |
Seasonal Changes in Fecal Cortisol Metabolites in Pyrenean Chamois |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2007 |
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Journal of Wildlife Management |
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J Wildl Manag |
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71 |
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1 |
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190-194 |
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Cadí-Moixeró, Nature Reserve, chamois, cortisol metabolites, feces, hunting reserve, Pyrenees, Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica, seasonal rhythm, stress |
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We studied seasonal changes in fecal cortisol metabolites (FCM), which have been widely used as indicators of stress, in a population of Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica) in the Cadí Range of northeastern Spain. We collected fecal samples from 2001 to 2003 in 3 particular locations with different altitudes and male or female presence, and we analyzed them for FCM and fecal nitrogen as an indicator of diet quality. We observed a clear seasonal pattern, with the highest FCM in winter, and we obtained correlations between FCM and monthly mean minimum temperatures and fecal nitrogen. We observed no effects of tourism presence, trophy hunting, or rut season on FCM. Analysis of cortisol metabolites in feces can be a good measure of winter stress in Pyrenean chamois. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4254 |
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Gröschl, M.; Wagner, R.; Rauh, M.; Dörr, H.G. |
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Stability of salivary steroids: the influences of storage, food and dental care |
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2001 |
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Steroids |
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66 |
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10 |
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737-741 |
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Cortisol; 17OH-Progesterone; Progesterone; Saliva; Stability |
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We studied influences of dental care, food and storage on the reproducibility of salivary steroid levels. Cortisol (F), 17OH-progesterone (17OHP) and Progesterone (P) were measured using adapted commercial radioimmunoassays. Saliva samples of healthy adults (n = 15; m:8; f:7) were collected directly before and after dental care, and directly before and after breakfast with various foodstuffs. A second experiment investigated stability of steroids under different storage conditions. Four series of identical saliva portions (I: Native saliva; II: Centrifuged saliva; III: Saliva with trifluor acetate (TFA); IV: Saliva with 0.5% NaN3) were stored at room temperature and at 4°C for up to three weeks. To demonstrate influences of repeated thawing and re-freezing of saliva on steroid values, saliva samples (n = 15) were divided into identical portions. These portions were frozen and re-thawed up to 5 times before measurement. Neither dental care nor intake of bread or milk effected the reproducibility of F, 170HP, and P. Steroid levels decreased significantly in the course of three weeks under different storage conditions (P < 0.001). This decrease was clinically relevant from the second week onward, with exception of NaN3 treated samples. After repeated freezing and re-thawing 17OHP and P decreased slightly (about 5%). Only F decreased significantly after the third thawing (P < 0.001). The results show the usefulness of standardized handling of saliva samples for improving reproducibility and reliability of salivary steroid measurements. |
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0039-128x |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5561 |
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Anderson, M.K.; Friend, T.H.; Evans, J.W.; Bushong, D.M. |
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Behavioral assessment of horses in therapeutic riding programs |
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1999 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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63 |
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1 |
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11-24 |
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Horses; Therapeutic riding; Temperament; Cortisol; Catecholamines |
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A behavioral assessment of horses who were being used and not used in therapeutic riding programs was conducted to help determine useful methods of selecting horses for use in therapeutic riding programs. A total of 103 horses (76 horses from five therapeutic riding centers and 27 non-therapeutic riding horses from four sites) were used. Temperament survey for each horse were completed by three riding instructors at each therapeutic riding center or by the individual most knowledgeable about the horse at the other sites. Twenty personality traits from the survey were used to quantify temperament. Concentrations of plasma cortisol, norepinephrine and epinephrine were also measured in each horse. A reactivity test was then conducted which involved introducing three novel stimuli: a walking and vocalizing toy pig placed on a cardboard surface in front of the horse for 20 s; popping a balloon near the horse's flank area; and suddenly opening an umbrella and holding it open in front of the horse for 20 s. Reactions (expressions, vocalizations and movement) to each of the stimuli were scored and used to calculate an average reactivity score for each horse. The therapeutic riding instructors did not often agree on the temperament of their center's horses. The personality trait ratings made by the therapeutic riding instructors at each center were on average significantly correlated (P<0.01, r>0.52) for only 37.8% of the horses for any two instructors and 7.8% for three instructors. No significant correlations were found between temperament, reactivity, and the hormone concentrations (r<0.19), but regression analysis indicated a possibility of predicting temperament from the reactivity score and hormone concentrations (P<0.08). There was also a tendency for relationships between extremes in temperament (desirable vs. undesirable) and the hormone concentrations (P<0.09), and between extremes in reactivity (low vs. high) and the hormone concentrations (P=0.08). The difference in ratings among riding instructors indicates a need for more collaboration between instructors when evaluating horse temperament. This study also indicates that it was very difficult to objectively determine the suitability of horses for therapeutic riding programs regarding their temperament and reactivity, probably because other traits (e.g., smoothness of gait) are also considered very important. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4812 |
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Tiefenbacher, S.; Lee, B.; Meyer, J.S.; Spealman, R.D. |
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Noninvasive technique for the repeated sampling of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys |
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2003 |
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American Journal of Primatology |
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Am. J. Primatol. |
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60 |
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2 |
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69-75 |
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saliva; cortisol; squirrel monkey; sampling technique; Hpa |
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The use of noninvasive measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function is of growing interest among preclinical and clinical investigators. This report describes a method for the repeated assessment of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) based on a saliva sampling technique previously developed for rhesus monkeys. Individually housed adult male squirrel monkeys were trained to chew on dental rope attached to a pole, from which saliva was extracted by centrifugation and analyzed for cortisol by radioimmunoassay (RIA). Eight of nine monkeys readily acquired the task, reliably providing adequate saliva samples for the assay. Salivary free cortisol levels were examined in these subjects under basal conditions and in response to two types of neuroendocrine challenge. Levels of salivary free cortisol showed relatively low intra- and interindividual variability, with mean individual morning levels ranging between 17.1 and 37.9 µg/dl. Squirrel monkeys demonstrated a consistent daily rhythm in salivary free cortisol ranging from a high of 27.4 ± 5.2 µg/dl (mean ± SEM) at 12 P.M. to a low of 7.5 ± 1.6 µg/dl at 6 P.M.. Intravenous (IV) challenges with 1 µg/kg ACTH, or 10 and 50 µg/kg CRF resulted in significant increases in salivary free cortisol. The described sampling technique provides a reliable and sensitive means for repeated measurement of HPA activity in unrestrained, awake squirrel monkeys. In addition, our findings illustrate several features of HPA system rhythmicity and reactivity using salivary cortisol instead of blood plasma or serum. Am. J. Primatol. 60:69–75, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc. |
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Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company |
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1098-2345 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5573 |
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Schmidt, A.; Aurich, J.; Möstl, E.; Müller, J.; Aurich, C. |
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Changes in cortisol release and heart rate and heart rate variability during the initial training of 3-year-old sport horses |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Hormones and Behavior |
Abbreviated Journal |
Horm Behav |
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58 |
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4 |
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628-636 |
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Horse; Initial training; Cortisol; Heart rate variability |
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Based on cortisol release, a variety of situations to which domestic horses are exposed have been classified as stressors but studies on the stress during equestrian training are limited. In the present study, Warmblood stallions (n = 9) and mares (n = 7) were followed through a 9 respective 12-week initial training program in order to determine potentially stressful training steps. Salivary cortisol concentrations, beat-to-beat (RR) interval and heart rate variability (HRV) were determined. The HRV variables standard deviation of the RR interval (SDRR), RMSSD (root mean square of successive RR differences) and the geometric means standard deviation 1 (SD1) and 2 (SD2) were calculated. Nearly each training unit was associated with an increase in salivary cortisol concentrations (p < 0.01). Cortisol release varied between training units and occasionally was more pronounced in mares than in stallions (p < 0.05). The RR interval decreased slightly in response to lunging before mounting of the rider. A pronounced decrease occurred when the rider was mounting, but before the horse showed physical activity (p < 0.001). The HRV variables SDRR, RMSSD and SD1 decreased in response to training and lowest values were reached during mounting of a rider (p < 0.001). Thereafter RR interval and HRV variables increased again. In contrast, SD2 increased with the beginning of lunging (p < 0.05) and no changes in response to mounting were detectable. In conclusion, initial training is a stressor for horses. The most pronounced reaction occurred in response to mounting by a rider, a situation resembling a potentially lethal threat under natural conditions. |
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0018-506x |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5223 |
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Schmidt, A.; Möstl, E.; Wehnert, C.; Aurich, J.; Müller, J.; Aurich, C. |
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Cortisol release and heart rate variability in horses during road transport |
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Journal Article |
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2010 |
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Hormones and Behavior |
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Horm. Behav. |
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57 |
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2 |
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209-215 |
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Horse; Transport; Cortisol; Heart rate variability |
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Based on plasma cortisol concentrations it is widely accepted that transport is stressful to horses. So far, cortisol release during transport has not been evaluated in depth by non-invasive techniques such as analysis of salivary cortisol and faecal cortisol metabolites. Transport also causes changes in heart rate and heart rate variability (HRV). In this study, salivary cortisol, faecal cortisol metabolites, heart rate and HRV in horses transported by road for short (one and 3.5 h) and medium duration (8 h) were determined. With the onset of transport, salivary cortisol increased immediately but highest concentrations were measured towards the end of transport (4.1 ± 1.6, 4.5 ± 2.6, 6.5 ± 1.8 ng/ml in horses transported for one, 3.5 and 8 h, respectively). Faecal cortisol metabolite concentrations did not change during transport, but 1 day after transport for 3.5 and 8 h had increased significantly (p < 0.01), reflecting intestinal passage time. Compared to salivary cortisol, changes in faecal cortisol metabolites were less pronounced. Heart rate increased and beat-to-beat (RR) interval decreased (p < 0.05) with the onset of transport. Standard deviation of heart rate increased while root mean square of successive RR differences (RMSSD) decreased in horses transported for 3.5 (from 74 ± 5 to 45 ± 6 ms) and 8 h (from 89.7 ± 7 to 59 ± 7 ms), indicating a reduction in vagal tone. In conclusion, transport of horses over short and medium distances leads to increased cortisol release and changes in heart rate and HRV indicative of stress. The degree of these changes is related to the duration of transport. Salivary cortisol is a sensitive parameter to detect transient changes in cortisol release. |
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0018-506x |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5387 |
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Dreschel, N.A.; Granger, D.A. |
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Methods of collection for salivary cortisol measurement in dogs |
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Journal Article |
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2009 |
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Hormones and Behavior |
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Horm. Behav. |
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55 |
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1 |
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163-168 |
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Dog; Canine; Salivary cortisol; Methods; Measurement; Stress |
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Salivary cortisol has been increasingly used as a measure of stress response in studies of welfare, reaction to stress and human–animal interactions in dogs and other species. While it can be a very useful measure, there are a number of saliva collection issues made evident through studies in the human and animal fields which have not been investigated in the canine species. Collection materials and the volume of saliva that is collected; the use of salivary stimulants; and the effect of food contamination can all dramatically impact cortisol measurement, leading to spurious results. In order to further examine the limitations of the collection method and the effects of collection material and salivary stimulant on salivary cortisol levels, a series of clinical, in vitro and in vivo studies were performed. It was found that there is a large amount of inter- and intra-individual variation in salivary cortisol measurement. Beef flavoring of collection materials leads to unpredictable variability in salivary cortisol concentration. Using salivary stimulants such as citric acid also has the potential to affect cortisol concentration measurement in saliva. Hydrocellulose appears to be a useful collection material for salivary cortisol determination. Recommendations for collection materials and use of salivary stimulants are presented. |
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0018-506x |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5560 |
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Peeters, M.; Sulon, J.; Beckers, J.-F.; Ledoux, D.; Vandenheede, M. |
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Comparison between blood serum and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses using an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
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43 |
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4 |
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487-493 |
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horse; cortisol; ACTH challenge; saliva; stress |
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Reasons for performing study: In horses, serum cortisol concentration is considered to provide an indirect measurement of stress. However, it includes both free and bound fractions. The sampling method is also invasive and often stressful. This is not the case for salivary cortisol, which is collected using a more welfare-friendly method and represents a part of the free cortisol fraction, which is the biologically active form. Objectives: To compare salivary and serum cortisol assays in horses, in a wide range of concentrations, using an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test, in order to validate salivary cortisol for stress assessment in horse. Methods: In 5 horses, blood samples were drawn using an i.v. catheter. Saliva samples were taken using swabs. Cortisol was assayed by radioimmunoassay. All data were treated with a regression method, which pools and analyses data from multiple subjects for linear analysis. Results: Mean ± s.d. cortisol concentrations measured at rest were 188.81 ± 51.46 nmol/l in serum and 1.19 ± 0.54 nmol/l in saliva. They started increasing immediately after ACTH injection and peaks were reached after 96 ± 16.7 min in serum (356.98 ± 55.29 nmol/l) and after 124 ± 8.9 min in saliva (21.79 ± 7.74 nmol/l, P<0.05). Discharge percentages were also different (225% in serum and 2150% in saliva, P<0.05). Correlation between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations showed an adjusted r2= 0.80 (P<0.001). The strong link between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations was also estimated by a regression analysis. Conclusions: The reliability of both RIAs and regression found between serum and salivary cortisol concentrations permits the validation of saliva-sampling as a noninvasive technique for cortisol level assessment in horses. |
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Blackwell Publishing Ltd |
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2042-3306 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5428 |
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