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Author Klein, E.D.; Bhatt, R.S.; Zentall, T.R. openurl 
  Title Contrast and the justification of effort Type Journal Article
  Year 2005 Publication (up) Psychonomic bulletin & review Abbreviated Journal Psychon Bull Rev  
  Volume 12 Issue 2 Pages 335-339  
  Keywords Awareness; *Cognition; *Discrimination (Psychology); Female; Humans; Male; Questionnaires; *Visual Perception  
  Abstract When humans are asked to evaluate rewards or outcomes that follow unpleasant (e.g., high-effort) events, they often assign higher value to that reward. This phenomenon has been referred to as cognitive dissonance or justification of effort. There is now evidence that a similar phenomenon can be found in nonhuman animals. When demonstrated in animals, however, it has been attributed to contrast between the unpleasant high effort and the conditioned stimulus for food. In the present experiment, we asked whether an analogous effect could be found in humans under conditions similar to those found in animals. Adult humans were trained to discriminate between shapes that followed a high-effort versus a low-effort response. In test, participants were found to prefer shapes that followed the high-effort response in training. These results suggest the possibility that contrast effects of the sort extensively studied in animals may play a role in cognitive dissonance and other related phenomena in humans.  
  Address University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA  
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  Language English Summary Language Original Title  
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  Series Volume Series Issue Edition  
  ISSN 1069-9384 ISBN Medium  
  Area Expedition Conference  
  Notes PMID:16082815 Approved no  
  Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 223  
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Author DiGian, K.A.; Friedrich, A.M.; Zentall, T.R. openurl 
  Title Discriminative stimuli that follow a delay have added value for pigeons Type Journal Article
  Year 2004 Publication (up) Psychonomic bulletin & review Abbreviated Journal Psychon Bull Rev  
  Volume 11 Issue 5 Pages 889-895  
  Keywords Animals; Behavior, Animal; Choice Behavior; Columbidae; *Cues; *Discrimination (Psychology)  
  Abstract Clement, Feltus, Kaiser, and Zentall (2000) reported that pigeons prefer discriminative stimuli that require greater effort (more pecks) to obtain over those that require less effort. In the present experiment, we examined two variables associated with this phenomenon. First, we asked whether delay of reinforcement, presumably a relatively aversive event similar to effort, would produce similar effects. Second, we asked whether the stimulus preference produced by a prior relatively aversive event depends on its anticipation. Anticipation of delay was accomplished by signaling its occurrence. Results indicated that delays can produce preferences similar to those produced by increased effort, but only if the delays are signaled.  
  Address University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA  
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  Language English Summary Language Original Title  
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  Series Volume Series Issue Edition  
  ISSN 1069-9384 ISBN Medium  
  Area Expedition Conference  
  Notes PMID:15732699 Approved no  
  Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 226  
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Author Zentall, T.R.; Weaver, J.E.; Clement, T.S. openurl 
  Title Pigeons group time intervals according to their relative duration Type Journal Article
  Year 2004 Publication (up) Psychonomic bulletin & review Abbreviated Journal Psychon Bull Rev  
  Volume 11 Issue 1 Pages 113-117  
  Keywords Animals; Columbidae; *Discrimination (Psychology); Reinforcement (Psychology); Time Factors; Time Perception  
  Abstract In the present research, we asked whether pigeons tended to judge time intervals not only in terms of their absolute value but also relative to a duration from which they must be discriminated (i.e., longer or shorter). Pigeons were trained on two independent temporal discriminations. In one discrimination, sample durations of 2 and 8 sec were associated with, for example, red and green hue comparisons, respectively, and in the other discrimination, sample durations of 4 and 16 sec were associated with vertical and horizontal line comparisons, respectively. If pigeons are trained on a temporal discrimination and tested with intermediate durations, the subjective midpoint typically occurs close to the geometric mean of the two trained values. The 4- and 8-sec values were selected to be the geometric mean of the two values in the other discrimination. When a 4-sec test sample was presented with the comparisons from the 2- and 8-sec discrimination, the pigeons preferred the comparison associated with the shorter sample. Similarly, when an 8-sec test sample was presented with the comparisons from the 4- and 16-sec discrimination, the pigeons preferred the comparison associated with the longer sample. Thus, a relative grouping effect was found. That is, durations that should have produced indifferent choice were influenced by their relative durations (shorter than or longer than the alternative) during training.  
  Address Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA. zentall@pop.uky.edu  
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  ISSN 1069-9384 ISBN Medium  
  Area Expedition Conference  
  Notes PMID:15116995 Approved no  
  Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 231  
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Author Brannon, E.M.; Terrace, H.S. openurl 
  Title Ordering of the numerosities 1 to 9 by monkeys Type Journal Article
  Year 1998 Publication (up) Science (New York, N.Y.) Abbreviated Journal Science  
  Volume 282 Issue 5389 Pages 746-749  
  Keywords Animals; *Discrimination (Psychology); Macaca mulatta/*psychology; *Mathematics; *Mental Processes  
  Abstract A fundamental question in cognitive science is whether animals can represent numerosity (a property of a stimulus that is defined by the number of discriminable elements it contains) and use numerical representations computationally. Here, it was shown that rhesus monkeys represent the numerosity of visual stimuli and detect their ordinal disparity. Two monkeys were first trained to respond to exemplars of the numerosities 1 to 4 in an ascending numerical order (1 --> 2 --> 3 --> 4). As a control for non-numerical cues, exemplars were varied with respect to size, shape, and color. The monkeys were later tested, without reward, on their ability to order stimulus pairs composed of the novel numerosities 5 to 9. Both monkeys responded in an ascending order to the novel numerosities. These results show that rhesus monkeys represent the numerosities 1 to 9 on an ordinal scale.  
  Address Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA. liz@psych.columbia.edu  
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  Series Volume Series Issue Edition  
  ISSN 0036-8075 ISBN Medium  
  Area Expedition Conference  
  Notes PMID:9784133 Approved no  
  Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 606  
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Author Nallan, G.B.; Pace, G.M.; McCoy, D.F.; Zentall, T.R. openurl 
  Title The role of elicited responding in the feature-positive effect Type Journal Article
  Year 1983 Publication (up) The American journal of psychology Abbreviated Journal Am J Psychol  
  Volume 96 Issue 3 Pages 377-390  
  Keywords Animals; Color Perception; Columbidae; *Discrimination (Psychology); Male; Practice (Psychology); Reinforcement (Psychology); Time Factors  
  Abstract Hearst and Jenkins proposed in 1974 that elicited responding accounts for the feature-positive effect. To test this position, pigeons were exposed to a feature-positive or feature-negative discrimination between successively presented displays--one consisted of a red and a green response key and the other consisted of two green response keys. There were four main conditions: 5-5 (5-sec trials, 5-sec intertrial intervals), 5-30, 30-30, and 30-180. Conditions 5-30 and 30-180 should produce the largest amount of elicited responding, and therefore the largest feature-positive effects. A response-independent bird was yoked to each response-dependent bird to allow direct assessment of the amount of elicited responding generated by each condition. Contrary to the predictions by Hearst and Jenkins's theory, response-dependent birds showed large feature-positive effects in each condition. The largest feature-positive effect was obtained in condition 5-5. Response-independent birds produced similar results, but manifested low response rates.  
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  Series Volume Series Issue Edition  
  ISSN 0002-9556 ISBN Medium  
  Area Expedition Conference  
  Notes PMID:6650707 Approved no  
  Call Number refbase @ user @ Serial 266  
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