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	Author	Altmann, J.
	Title	Observational Study of Behavior: Sampling Methods			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1974	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	49	Issue	3-4	Pages	227-266
	Keywords
	Abstract	Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4684
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	Author	Dow, M.; Ewing, A.W.; Sutherland, I.
	Title	Studies on the behaviour of cyprinodont fish. III. The temporal patterning of aggression in Aphyosemion striatum (Boulenger)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1976	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	59	Issue	3-4	Pages	252-268
	Keywords	Aggression; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Dominance-Subordination; Fishes; Humans; Individuality; Killifishes; Male; Time Factors
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0005-7959	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1035107			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4151
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	Author	Cheney, D.L.; Seyfarth, R.M.
	Title	Reconciliation and redirected aggression in vervet monkeys, Behaviour			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1989	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	110	Issue		Pages	258-275
	Keywords
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4865
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	Author	Griffin, A.S.
	Title	Socially acquired predator avoidance: Is it just classical conditioning?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Brain Research Bulletin	Abbreviated Journal	Special Issue:Brain Mechanisms, Cognition and Behaviour in Birds
	Volume	76	Issue	3	Pages	264-271
	Keywords	Learning; Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning; Social learning; Ecological specialization; General process theory; Ecology; Predation; Backward conditioning
	Abstract	Associative learning theories presume the existence of a general purpose learning process, the structure of which does not mirror the demands of any particular learning problem. In contrast, learning scientists working within an Evolutionary Biology tradition believe that learning processes have been shaped by ecological demands. One potential means of exploring how ecology may have modified properties of acquisition is to use associative learning theory as a framework within which to analyse a particular learning phenomenon. Recent work has used this approach to examine whether socially transmitted predator avoidance can be conceptualised as a classical conditioning process in which a novel predator stimulus acts as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and acquires control over an avoidance response after it has become associated with alarm signals of social companions, the unconditioned stimulus (US). I review here a series of studies examining the effect of CS/US presentation timing on the likelihood of acquisition. Results suggest that socially acquired predator avoidance may be less sensitive to forward relationships than traditional classical conditioning paradigms. I make the case that socially acquired predator avoidance is an exciting novel one-trial learning paradigm that could be studied along side fear conditioning. Comparisons between social and non-social learning of danger at both the behavioural and neural level may yield a better understanding of how ecology might shape properties and mechanisms of learning.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0361-9230	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4697
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	Author	Appleby, M.C.
	Title	Social Rank and Food Access in Red Deer Stags			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1980	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	74	Issue		Pages	294-309
	Keywords
	Abstract	The behaviour of a free-living group of male red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on the Isle of Rhum, Scotland, was studied throughout the year to investigate the relations between social dominance and food access. The study is based on the collection of agonistic interactions between members of the study group outside the rutting season. Analysis of these confirmed that dyadic dominance relationships summate to a very clear agonistic hierarchy, while seasonal changes in frequency and type of interactions suggested that rank in the hierarchy may affect access to food through direct feeding interference. This would constitute a selective advantage of the acquisition of high rank. A behaviour pattern in which a stag displaces a subordinate and takes over his feeding-site is proposed as a mechanism of direct feeding interference. It occurs throughout the year, but with a frequency closely related to changes in food availability and quality. The proportion of such interactions that an individual wins is related to his rank, so advantages gained from this behaviour would primarily benefit high-ranking stags. These are likely to consist of improved body condition and winter survival. The importance of high rank in obtaining access to limited food was supported by the results of a simple experiment providing a small area of fertilized grass. Most of the grazing in the area was due to the highest-ranking stag present at any time.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4860
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	Author	Schilder, M.B.H.
	Title	Dominance relationships between adult Plains zebra stallions in semi – captivity			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1988	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	104	Issue	3-4	Pages	300-319
	Keywords
	Abstract	The relationships between 4-5 adult zebra stallions, living in a safari park, were investigated over a period of 5 years. Asymmetries in the distributions of a number of behaviours could be explained by adopting dominance as an intervening variable. Dominance in stallions was of a bipolar nature with on the one hand behaviours representing subordinance and defence, and on the other hand behaviours reinforcing and confirming dominance. Expression of formal dominance seems to play a minor role. The dyadic relationships of stallions differed as to the number of behaviours reflecting dominance relationships. Although often linear rank-orders could be constructed, these rank-orders were not necessarily identical. This means that the concept of dominance is of only limited value for describing relationships between zebra stallions.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	from Professor Hans Klingels Equine Reference List			Approved	yes
	Call Number				Serial	1564
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	Author	Beauchamp, G.
	Title	Individual Differences In Activity And Exploration Influence Leadership In Pairs Of Foraging Zebra Finches			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2000	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	137	Issue		Pages	301-314
	Keywords
	Abstract	This study investigated the role of dominance and level of activity and exploration on leadership in zebra finches (Taenopygia guttata) searching for food. In pairs of zebra finches fairly matched in size and that experienced the same level of food deprivation, the same bird consistently reached first one foraging patch over several trials. The same pattern of arrival to food occurred when resources were provided in two distant patches available concurrently, a situation that would potentially allow subordinates a greater access to resources. In further testing, the formation of new pairs with the same birds led to several changes in leadership, indicating that leadership is not an absolute feature. The member of a pair that proved to be the most active and exploratory during independent, solitary trials became the leader in nearly all pairs tested. The same pattern held true in newly rearranged pairs where individuals often experienced changes in dominance status. Dominance failed to be associated with leadership in all tests. The results suggest that in a relatively egalitarian species, level of activity and exploration may be a stronger predictor of leadership than dominance.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4698
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	Author	Stammbach, E.
	Title	On Social Differentiation in Groups of Captive Female Hamadryas Baboons			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1978	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	67	Issue	3-4	Pages	322-338
	Keywords
	Abstract	The social differentiation in small groups of captive female hamadryas baboons was examined. Two positions could be distinguished: The highest ranking female, denoted as central individual, monopolized nearly all the presenting, mounting and grooming interactions. The lower ranking females, denoted as peripheral individuals, competed for access to the central female. All dyads of a group were arranged in a rank order according to the amount of sociopositive interaction which they reached within the group. This order of prevalence of dyads was positively correlated with the sum of dominance ranks of the dyad and the mutual attraction as estimated by choice tests. A multiple rank correlation demonstrated that the influence of the sum of ranks and of mutual attraction were nearly independent. If an individual's relationship to the central female had a higher rank of prevalence than that of its rival, it intervened more often and more successfully when the rival tried to interact with the central female. Interventions served to defend rather than to establish relationships. The results are compared with other studies that discuss basic principles governing structuring processes in nonhuman primate groups.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5248
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	Author	WARING GH et al,
	Title	The behaviour of horses			Type	Book Chapter
	Year		Publication		Abbreviated Journal	In: Behaviour of domestic animals
	Volume		Issue		Pages	330-369
	Keywords
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	from Professor Hans Klingels Equine Reference List			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1698
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	Author	Robbins, R.L.; McCreery, E.K.
	Title	African wild dog pup vocalizations with special reference to Morton's model			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Behaviour
	Volume	140	Issue	3	Pages	333-351
	Keywords
	Abstract	African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) pup vocalizations were studied in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe for weeks 3 through 7 of the socialization period. Here we present the vocal repertoire, including the use of repetitive and mixed sounds, and investigate the extent to which the emerging sound system of Lycaon conforms to predicted design features of Morton's (MS) motivation-structural rules. Features of the pup sound system are highlighted by comparison with adults and other social canids.TAGSTARTBRTAGEND Data were collected at three den sites (litter sizes: 8, 8, and 9) of two study packs. A total of 1903 vocalizations were classified, and eight vocal classes and seven subclasses were identified. Although all sounds identified persist into adulthood, observations indicate a delayed onset in some vocal classes, including both the lowest (i.e. rumbles) and highest (i.e. twitters) frequency sounds. As predicted by the (MS) model, pups invested heavily in high frequency, harmonic care/social soliciting sounds (91%, N = 1586 unmixed vocalizations), however, no clear association between acoustic structure and sound repetition was found. Significantly more repetition was heard in all vocal classes with the exception of moans and barks. Intra-pack aggression is generally muted in this obligate social carnivore suggesting that repetition may be a low cost strategy to induce social outcomes and obtain food. The patterning of mixed vocalizations (N = 317) was consistent with the (MS) model. Given the high degree of cooperation necessary for individual survival, the predominant use of cross-mixed sounds may serve to minimize conflict as pups begin to form relationships with littermates and adults. Noisy/noisy sounds were exceptionally rare. Comparative data suggest a relationship between the early patterning of mixed sounds and species-specific social organization in canids.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2200
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