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	Author	Christensen, J.W.; Rundgren, M.; Olsson, K.
	Title	Training methods for horses: habituation to a frightening stimulus			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Equine veterinary journal	Abbreviated Journal	Equine Vet J
	Volume	38	Issue	5	Pages	439-443
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Conditioning (Psychology); Fear; Heart Rate/physiology; Horses/physiology/psychology; Learning; Male; Random Allocation; Reinforcement (Psychology); Safety; Time Factors
	Abstract	REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Responses of horses in frightening situations are important for both equine and human safety. Considerable scientific interest has been shown in development of reactivity tests, but little effort has been dedicated to the development of appropriate training methods for reducing fearfulness. OBJECTIVES: To investigate which of 3 different training methods (habituation, desensitisation and counter-conditioning) was most effective in teaching horses to react calmly in a potentially frightening situation. HYPOTHESES: 1) Horses are able to generalise about the test stimulus such that, once familiar with the test stimulus in one situation, it appears less frightening and elicits a reduced response even when the stimulus intensity is increased or the stimulus is presented differently; and 2) alternative methods such as desensitisation and counter-conditioning would be more efficient than a classic habituation approach. METHODS: Twenty-seven naive 2-year-old Danish Warmblood stallions were trained according to 3 different methods, based on classical learning theory: 1) horses (n = 9) were exposed to the full stimulus (a moving, white nylon bag, 1.2 x 0.75 m) in 5 daily training sessions until they met a predefined habituation criterion (habituation); 2) horses (n = 9) were introduced gradually to the stimulus and habituated to each step before the full stimulus was applied (desensitisation); 3) horses (n = 9) were trained to associate the stimulus with a positive reward before being exposed to the full stimulus (counter-conditioning). Each horse received 5 training sessions of 3 min per day. Heart rate and behavioural responses were recorded. RESULTS: Horses trained with the desensitisation method showed fewer flight responses in total and needed fewer training sessions to learn to react calmly to test stimuli. Variations in heart rate persisted even when behavioural responses had ceased. In addition, all horses on the desensitisation method eventually habituated to the test stimulus whereas some horses on the other methods did not. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Desensitisation appeared to be the most effective training method for horses in frightening situations. Further research is needed in order to investigate the role of positive reinforcement, such as offering food, in the training of horses.
	Address	Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Health, Welfare and Nutrition, Tjele, Denmark
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0425-1644	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16986605			Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	1783
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	Author	West, R.E.; Young, R.J.
	Title	Do domestic dogs show any evidence of being able to count?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	3	Pages	183-186
	Keywords	Animal Feed; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Dogs; Female; Male; *Mathematics; Reinforcement (Psychology); Visual Perception
	Abstract	Numerical competence has been demonstrated in a wide range of animal species. The level of numerical abilities shown ranges from simple relative numerousness judgements to true counting. In this study we used the preferential looking technique to test whether 11 pet dogs could count. The dogs were presented with three simple calculations: “1+1=2”; “1+1=1”; and “1+1=3”. These calculations were performed by presenting the dogs with treats that were placed behind a screen that allowed manipulation of the outcome of the calculation. When the dogs expected the outcome they spent the same amount of time looking at the result of the calculation as they did on the initial presentation. However, when the result was unexpected dogs spent significantly longer looking at the outcome of the calculation. The results suggest that the dogs were anticipating the outcome of the calculations they observed, thus suggesting that dogs may have a rudimentary ability to count.
	Address	De Montfort University-Lincoln, Caythorpe, Grantham, Lincolnshire, NG32 3EP, UK
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12357291			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2594
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	Author	Burke, D.; Cieplucha, C.; Cass, J.; Russell, F.; Fry, G.
	Title	Win-shift and win-stay learning in the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	2	Pages	79-84
	Keywords	Animals; Echidna/psychology; Ecology; Female; Learning; Memory; Predatory Behavior; Reinforcement (Psychology)
	Abstract	Numerous previous investigators have explained species differences in spatial memory performance in terms of differences in foraging ecology. In three experiments we attempted to extend these findings by examining the extent to which the spatial memory performance of echidnas (or “spiny anteaters”) can be understood in terms of the spatio-temporal distribution of their prey (ants and termites). This is a species and a foraging situation that have not been examined in this way before. Echidnas were better able to learn to avoid a previously rewarding location (to “win-shift”) than to learn to return to a previously rewarding location (to “win-stay”), at short retention intervals, but were unable to learn either of these strategies at retention intervals of 90 min. The short retention interval results support the ecological hypothesis, but the long retention interval results do not.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia. darren_burke@uow.edu.au
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12150039			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2605
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	Author	Cerutti, D.T.; Staddon, J.E.R.
	Title	Immediacy versus anticipated delay in the time-left experiment: a test of the cognitive hypothesis			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process
	Volume	30	Issue	1	Pages	45-57
	Keywords	Animals; Choice Behavior/physiology; Cognition/physiology; Columbidae; Male; Models, Psychological; Psychological Theory; Reinforcement (Psychology); Reinforcement Schedule; Time Perception/*physiology
	Abstract	In the time-left experiment (J. Gibbon & R. M. Church, 1981), animals are said to compare an expectation of a fixed delay to food, for one choice, with a decreasing delay expectation for the other, mentally representing both upcoming time to food and the difference between current time and upcoming time (the cognitive hypothesis). The results of 2 experiments support a simpler view: that animals choose according to the immediacies of reinforcement for each response at a time signaled by available time markers (the temporal control hypothesis). It is not necessary to assume that animals can either represent or subtract representations of times to food to explain the results of the time-left experiment.
	Address	Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-1050, USA. cerutti@psych.duke.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0097-7403	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14709114			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2768
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	Author	Boysen, S.T.; Bernston, G.G.; Hannan, M.B.; Cacioppo, J.T.
	Title	Quantity-based interference and symbolic representations in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1996	Publication	Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process
	Volume	22	Issue	1	Pages	76-86
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Discrimination Learning; Female; Male; Pan troglodytes; *Reinforcement (Psychology); Task Performance and Analysis
	Abstract	Five chimpanzees with training in counting and numerical skills selected between 2 arrays of different amounts of candy or 2 Arabic numerals. A reversed reinforcement contingency was in effect, in which the selected array was removed and the subject received the nonselected candies (or the number of candies represented by the nonselected Arabic numeral). Animals were unable to maximize reward by selecting the smaller array when candies were used as array elements. When Arabic numerals were substituted for the candy arrays, all animals showed an immediate shift to a more optimal response strategy of selecting the smaller numeral, thereby receiving the larger reward. Results suggest that a response disposition to the high-incentive candy stimuli introduced a powerful interference effect on performance, which was effectively overridden by the use of symbolic representations.
	Address	Ohio State University, Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus 43210-1222, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0097-7403	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:8568498			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2781
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	Author	Boysen, S.T.; Berntson, G.G.
	Title	Responses to quantity: perceptual versus cognitive mechanisms in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1995	Publication	Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process
	Volume	21	Issue	1	Pages	82-86
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Choice Behavior; Cognition/physiology; Female; Pan troglodytes; Perception/*physiology; Reinforcement (Psychology); Task Performance and Analysis
	Abstract	Two chimpanzees were trained to select among 2 different amounts of candy (1-6 items). The task was designed so that selection of either array by the active (selector) chimpanzee resulted in that array being given to the passive (observer) animal, with the remaining (nonselected) array going to the selector. Neither animal was able to select consistently the smaller array, which would reap the larger reward. Rather, both animals preferentially selected the larger array, thereby receiving the smaller number of reinforcers. When Arabic numerals were substituted for the food arrays, however, the selector animal evidenced more optimal performance, immediately selecting the smaller numeral and thus receiving the larger reward. These findings suggest that a basic predisposition to respond to the perceptual-motivational features of incentive stimuli can interfere with task performance and that this interference can be overridden when abstract symbols serve as choice stimuli.
	Address	Comparative Cognition Project, Ohio State University, Columbus 43210-1222
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0097-7403	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:7844508			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2783
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	Author	Kaplan, A.I.; Borodovskii, M.I.
	Title	[Alternative animal behavior: a model and its statistical characteristics]			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1989	Publication	Nauchnye Doklady Vysshei Shkoly. Biologicheskie Nauki	Abbreviated Journal	Nauchnye Doki Vyss Shkoly Biol Nauki
	Volume		Issue	3	Pages	29-32
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Male; Mathematics; Models, Biological; *Models, Statistical; Rats; Reinforcement (Psychology)
	Abstract	The rats' alternative behaviour in T-maze at simultaneous two-sided food refreshment in 13 trials a day during 6 days has been studied. It has been found that in the first testing days the indexes of alternative behaviour of animals correspond to the characteristics of the random alternation. However, on the 5-6th day of testing in the overwhelming majority of rats the true deviation of alternation index above or below than the theoretical values has been revealed. A question on the existence of two strategies of cognitive behaviour alteration and perseveration in rat population is under discussion.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	Russian	Summary Language		Original Title	Al'ternativnoe povedenie zhivotnykh: model' i statisticheskie kharakteristiki
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0470-4606	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:2742929			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2799
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	Author	Pickens, C.L.; Holland, P.C.
	Title	Conditioning and cognition			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews	Abbreviated Journal	Neurosci Biobehav Rev
	Volume	28	Issue	7	Pages	651-661
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning/physiology; Cognition/physiology; Conditioning (Psychology)/physiology; Discrimination Learning/physiology; Humans; Memory; Models, Psychological; Reinforcement (Psychology); Visual Perception/physiology
	Abstract	Animals' abilities to use internal representations of absent objects to guide adaptive behavior and acquire new information, and to represent multiple spatial, temporal, and object properties of complex events and event sequences, may underlie many aspects of human perception, memory, and symbolic thought. In this review, two classes of simple associative learning tasks that address these core cognitive capacities are discussed. The first set, including reinforcer revaluation and mediated learning procedures, address the power of Pavlovian conditioned stimuli to gain access, through learning, to representations of upcoming events. The second set of investigations concern the construction of complex stimulus representations, as illustrated in studies of contextual learning, the conjunction of explicit stimulus elements in configural learning procedures, and recent studies of episodic-like memory. The importance of identifying both cognitive process and brain system bases of performance in animal models is emphasized.
	Address	Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0149-7634	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15555675			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2803
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	Author	Dougherty, D.M.; Lewis, P.
	Title	Generalization of a tactile stimulus in horses			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1993	Publication	Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Anal Behav
	Volume	59	Issue	3	Pages	521-528
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Female; Horses; Male; Reinforcement (Psychology); Touch
	Abstract	Using horses, we investigated the control of operant behavior by a tactile stimulus (the training stimulus) and the generalization of behavior to six other similar test stimuli. In a stall, the experimenters mounted a response panel in the doorway. Located on this panel were a response lever and a grain dispenser. The experimenters secured a tactile-stimulus belt to the horse's back. The stimulus belt was constructed by mounting seven solenoids along a piece of burlap in a manner that allowed each to provide the delivery of a tactile stimulus, a repetitive light tapping, at different locations (spaced 10.0 cm apart) along the horse's back. Two preliminary steps were necessary before generalization testing: training a measurable response (lip pressing) and training on several reinforcement schedules in the presence of a training stimulus (tapping by one of the solenoids). We then gave each horse two generalization test sessions. Results indicated that the horses' behavior was effectively controlled by the training stimulus. Horses made the greatest number of responses to the training stimulus, and the tendency to respond to the other test stimuli diminished as the stimuli became farther away from the training stimulus. These findings are discussed in the context of behavioral principles and their relevance to the training of horses.
	Address	Human Behavioral Pharmacology Laboratory, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston 77030
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0022-5002	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:8315368			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3571
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	Author	Neuringer, A.
	Title	Reinforced variability in animals and people: implications for adaptive action			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2004	Publication	The American Psychologist	Abbreviated Journal	Am Psychol
	Volume	59	Issue	9	Pages	891-906
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Choice Behavior; Conditioning, Operant; Creativeness; Discrimination (Psychology); Humans; Memory; Problem Solving; Reinforcement (Psychology)
	Abstract	Although reinforcement often leads to repetitive, even stereotyped responding, that is not a necessary outcome. When it depends on variations, reinforcement results in responding that is diverse, novel, indeed unpredictable, with distributions sometimes approaching those of a random process. This article reviews evidence for the powerful and precise control by reinforcement over behavioral variability, evidence obtained from human and animal-model studies, and implications of such control. For example, reinforcement of variability facilitates learning of complex new responses, aids problem solving, and may contribute to creativity. Depression and autism are characterized by abnormally repetitive behaviors, but individuals afflicted with such psychopathologies can learn to vary their behaviors when reinforced for so doing. And reinforced variability may help to solve a basic puzzle concerning the nature of voluntary action.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Reed College, Portland, OR 97202, USA. allen.neuringer@reed.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-066X	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15584823			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4106
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