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Weishaupt, M.A.; Wiestner, T.; von Peinen, K.; Waldern, N.; Roepstorff, L.; van Weeren, R.; Meyer, H.; Johnston, C. |
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Effect of head and neck position on vertical ground reaction forces and interlimb coordination in the dressage horse ridden at walk and trot on a treadmill |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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36 |
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387-392 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Exercise Test/instrumentation/methods/*veterinary; Forelimb/physiology; Gait; Head/physiology; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Male; Neck/physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/methods/*physiology; Posture; Statistics, Nonparametric; Walking/*physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Little is known in quantitative terms about the influence of different head-neck positions (HNPs) on the loading pattern of the locomotor apparatus. Therefore it is difficult to predict whether a specific riding technique is beneficial for the horse or if it may increase the risk for injury. OBJECTIVE: To improve the understanding of forelimb-hindlimb balance and its underlying temporal changes in relation to different head and neck positions. METHODS: Vertical ground reaction force and time parameters of each limb were measured in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden at walk and trot on an instrumented treadmill in 6 predetermined HNPs: HNP1 – free, unrestrained with loose reins; HNP2 – neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 – neck raised, bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 – neck lowered and flexed, bridge of the nose considerably behind the vertical; HNP5 – neck extremely elevated and bridge of the nose considerably in front of the vertical; HNP6 – neck and head extended forward and downward. Positions were judged by a qualified dressage judge. HNPs were assessed by comparing the data to a velocity-matched reference HNP (HNP2). Differences were tested using paired t test or Wilcoxon signed rank test (P<0.05). RESULTS: At the walk, stride duration and overreach distance increased in HNP1, but decreased in HNP3 and HNP5. Stride impulse was shifted to the forehand in HNP1 and HNP6, but shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. At the trot, stride duration increased in HNP4 and HNP5. Overreach distance was shorter in HNP4. Stride impulse shifted to the hindquarters in HNP5. In HNP1 peak forces decreased in the forelimbs; in HNP5 peak forces increased in fore- and hindlimbs. CONCLUSIONS: HNP5 had the biggest impact on limb timing and load distribution and behaved inversely to HNP1 and HNP6. Shortening of forelimb stance duration in HNP5 increased peak forces although the percentage of stride impulse carried by the forelimbs decreased. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: An extremely high HNP affects functionality much more than an extremely low neck. |
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Equine Hospital, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland |
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PMID:17402453 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3704 |
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Takahashi, T.; Kasashima, Y.; Eto, D.; Mukai, K.; Hiraga, A. |
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Title |
Effect of uphill exercise on equine superficial digital flexor tendon forces at trot and canter |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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36 |
Pages |
435-439 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Exercise Test/veterinary; Female; Forelimb/physiology; Hoof and Claw/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*methods/*physiology; Tarsal Joints/*physiology; Tarsus, Animal; Tendon Injuries/etiology/prevention & control/veterinary; Time Factors |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: One cause of overstrain injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) in horses is the force loaded on the SDFT during repeated running. Therefore, decreasing this force may reduce SDFT injury. It has been reported that strain on the SDFT decreases with a toe-wedge shoe. Uphill courses are used for training of racehorses, and the angle of hoof-sole to the horizon during uphill running is similar to that of the toe-wedge shoe. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of uphill exercise on the force on the SDFT during trotting and cantering. METHODS: Arthroscopically implantable force probes (AIFP) were implanted into the SDFT of the left or right forelimb of 7 Thoroughbred horses and AIFP output recorded during trotting and cantering on a treadmill inclined at slopes of 0, 3 or 8%, and then 0% again. Superficial digital flexor tendon force was calculated as a relative value, with the amplitude of AIFP output voltage at initial 0% slope equal to 100. RESULTS: Out of 14 sets of experiments, AIFP data were analysed successfully in 9 at the trot, in 3 at the canter in the trailing forelimb on a slope of 3 and 8%, and in 2 at the canter in the leading forelimb on a slope of 3%. Increasing the incline from 0-8% tended to decrease peak force in the SDFT at the trot, and in the trailing forelimb at the canter. However, force in the SDFT was unchanged in the leading forelimb at the canter on the 3% incline. CONCLUSIONS: The force in the SDFT trotting or cantering uphill is unchanged or lower than that loaded at the same speed on a flat surface. Because at similar speeds the workload for uphill exercise is greater than on the flat, uphill running increases exercise intensity without increasing force in the SDFT. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Uphill exercise may reduce the risk of SDFT injury as both running speed and SDFT force are decreased on an incline as compared to the flat, even when exercise intensity is the same. Further study is needed to confirm these findings at canter in a larger population of horses. |
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Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, 321-4 Tokami-cho, Utsunomiya, Tochigi 320-0856, Japan |
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PMID:17402462 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4005 |
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Peel, J.A.; Peel, M.B.; Davies, H.M.S. |
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The effect of gallop training on hoof angle in thoroughbred racehorses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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36 |
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431-434 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Hoof and Claw/*anatomy & histology/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; *Physical Conditioning, Animal/adverse effects/methods/physiology; Reproducibility of Results; Running/*physiology; Seasons; Toe Joint/anatomy & histology/physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The economic impact of soundness problems in racehorses is very high and low hoof angle at the toe has been associated with a lack of soundness. However, it is not clear what environmental and management factors might contribute to a low hoof angle. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the hypothesis that the hooves of racehorses become flatter when in gallop training, as well as to determine factors contributing to this trend. METHODS: Weekly hoof measurements were taken with a hoof gauge from 45 Thoroughbred racehorses; 4 Thoroughbred show horses kept in consistent conditions and shod by the same farrier as some of the racehorses; and 6 unshod free-ranging horses. A further 15 horses were measured twice in one day to determine the repeatability of the method. RESULTS: Repeatability coefficients were 0.31 degrees for the left hoof and 0.37 degrees for the right. Racehorses in training showed a significant decrease in hoof angle over time while free ranging horses and show horses did not. Free-ranging horses had a significantly lower angle in winter (wet) compared with summer (dry) in both left (P = 0.040) and right (P = 0.017). Show horses had no significant change in hoof angle. Racehorses that had a period of rest during the experiment (n = 11) showed a decrease in hoof angle during training and an increase over their rest period for both hooves (P = 0.005 for the left hoof, P = 0.0009 for the right). CONCLUSIONS: Training for fast exercise in Thoroughbred racehorses is associated with a reduction in hoof angle and wet pasture conditions may also be associated with a reduced hoof angle in free-ranging horses. Potential relevance: Gallop exercise has a potentially large effect on hoof angle and therefore, a change in angle should be expected to occur in racehorses starting fast exercise work. Hence management of horses with abnormally low hoof angles may require an adaptation to their training regime in order to minimise this effect. |
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Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia |
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PMID:17402461 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4006 |
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Barrey, E.; Desliens, F.; Poirel, D.; Biau, S.; Lemaire, S.; Rivero, J.L.L.; Langlois, B. |
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Title |
Early evaluation of dressage ability in different breeds |
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Journal Article |
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2002 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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34 |
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319-324 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Breeding; Discriminant Analysis; Female; Forelimb; Gait/genetics/*physiology; Hindlimb; Horses/anatomy & histology/*genetics/*physiology; Male; Photography/veterinary; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Sports |
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Dressage is one of the Olympic equestrian sports practiced in several countries using different horse breeds. Specific characteristics of the walk, trot and canter are required for dressage. It has been assumed that some of these traits could be selected for genetically and contribute to dressage performance. The purpose of this study was to compare the walk, trot and conformation characteristics in young horses of different breeds used for dressage. A total of 142 horses age 3 years were classified into 3 groups of breeds (German, French and Spanish saddle horses) and tested using the same procedure. The skeletal conformation measurements were made by image analysis. Gait variables of the walk and trot were measured by the accelerometric gait analysis system Equimetrix. Discriminant analysis could explain the variability between the groups by taking into account the walk (P<0.0003), trot (P<0.0001) and conformation variables (P<0.0001). Many gait and conformation variables were significantly different between the breeds. In summary, the German horses had gait characteristics more adapted for dressage competition, and the results of this group could be used as a reference for early evaluation in dressage. Purebred Spanish horses could be considered as a reference for collected gaits used for farm work and old academic dressage. The gait and conformation tests could be applied in a breeding or crossing plan to detect more accurately young horses with good dressage ability. |
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INRA, Station de Genetique Quantitative et Appliquee, Groupe Cheval, Jouy-en-Josas, France |
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PMID:12405708 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3726 |
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Bobbert, M.F.; Santamaria, S. |
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Contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to mechanical energy changes in jumping |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
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The Journal of Experimental Biology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Biol |
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208 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
249-260 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/*physiology; Hindlimb/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Muscle, Skeletal/*physiology; Time Factors |
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The purpose of the present study was to gain more insight into the contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to energy changes during the push-off for a jump. For this purpose, we collected kinematic data at 240 Hz from 23 5-year-old Warmbloods (average mass: 595 kg) performing free jumps over a 1.15 m high fence. From these data, we calculated the changes in mechanical energy and the changes in limb length and joint angles. The force carried by the forelimbs and the amount of energy stored was estimated from the distance between elbow and hoof, assuming that this part of the leg behaved as a linear spring. During the forelimb push, the total energy first decreased by 3.2 J kg(-1) and then increased again by 4.2 J kg(-1) to the end of the forelimb push. At the end of the forelimb push, the kinetic energy due to horizontal velocity of the centre of mass was 1.6 J kg(-1) less than at the start, while the effective energy (energy contributing to jump height) was 2.3 J kg(-1) greater. It was investigated to what extent these changes could involve passive spring-like behaviour of the forelimbs. The amount of energy stored and re-utilized in the distal tendons during the forelimb push was estimated to be on average 0.4 J kg(-1) in the trailing forelimb and 0.23 J kg(-1) in the leading forelimb. This means that a considerable amount of energy was first dissipated and subsequently regenerated by muscles, with triceps brachii probably being the most important contributor. During the hindlimb push, the muscles of the leg were primarily producing energy. The total increase in energy was 2.5 J kg(-1) and the peak power output amounted to 71 W kg(-1). |
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Institute for Fundamental and Clinical Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, van der Boechorstraat 9, NL-1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. MFBobbert@fbw.vu.nl |
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0022-0949 |
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PMID:15634844 |
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1895 |
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Licka, T.; Kapaun, M.; Peham, C. |
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Influence of rider on lameness in trotting horses |
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Year |
2004 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
734-736 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Body Weight; Exercise Test/veterinary; Female; Forelimb/physiopathology; Gait/*physiology; Head Movements/*physiology; Hindlimb/physiopathology; Horse Diseases/diagnosis/*physiopathology; Horses; Humans; Lameness, Animal/diagnosis/*physiopathology; Male; Stress, Mechanical; Weight-Bearing/physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Equine lameness is commonly evaluated when the horse is being ridden, but the influence of the rider on the lameness has not been documented. OBJECTIVE: To document the effect of 2 riders of different training levels on the vertical movement of the head and croup. METHODS: Twenty mature horses were ridden at trot by an experienced dressage rider and a novice rider, as well as trotted in hand. Kinematic measurements of markers placed on the horse's head and sacral bone were carried out. The asymmetries of the vertical head and sacral bone motion were calculated as lameness parameters and compared with paired t tests. RESULTS: Trotting in hand, 17 horses showed forelimb lameness (1-4/10) and 13 hindlimb lameness (1-2/10). Intra-individually, 11 horses showed significant differences in forelimb lameness and 4 horses showed significant differences in hindlimb lameness when ridden. Over all horses, hindlimb lameness increased significantly under the dressage rider compared to unridden horses. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of a rider can alter the degree of lameness; however, its influence cannot be predicted for an individual horse. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: In order to evaluate mild lameness, horses should be evaluated at trot both under saddle and in hand. If lameness is exacerbated, a second rider may be helpful; the level of training of the rider should be taken into consideration. |
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Movement Science Group, Department V, Clinic of Orthopaedics in Ungulates, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:15656506 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3715 |
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Fruehwirth, B.; Peham, C.; Scheidl, M.; Schobesberger, H. |
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Evaluation of pressure distribution under an English saddle at walk, trot and canter |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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36 |
Issue |
8 |
Pages |
754-757 |
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Animals; Back/*physiology; Biomechanics; Body Weight/physiology; Exercise Test/veterinary; Gait/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Humans; Locomotion/*physiology; Pressure |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Basic information about the influence of a rider on the equine back is currently lacking. HYPOTHESIS: That pressure distribution under a saddle is different between the walk, trot and canter. METHODS: Twelve horses without clinical signs of back pain were ridden. At least 6 motion cycles at walk, trot and canter were measured kinematically. Using a saddle pad, the pressure distribution was recorded. The maximum overall force (MOF) and centre of pressure (COP) were calculated. The range of back movement was determined from a marker placed on the withers. RESULTS: MOF and COP showed a consistent time pattern in each gait. MOF was 12.1 +/- 1.2 and 243 +/- 4.6 N/kg at walk and trot, respectively, in the ridden horse. In the unridden horse MOF was 172.7 +/- 11.8 N (walk) and 302.4 +/- 33.9 N (trot). At ridden canter, MOF was 27.2 +/- 4.4 N/kg. The range of motion of the back of the ridden horse was significantly lower compared to the unridden, saddled horse. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Analyses may help quantitative and objective evaluation of the interaction between rider and horse as mediated through the saddle. The information presented is therefore of importance to riders, saddlers and equine clinicians. With the technique used in this study, style, skill and training level of different riders can be quantified, which would give the opportunity to detect potentially harmful influences and create opportunities for improvement. |
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Movement Science Group, Department V, Clinic of Orthopaedics in Ungulates, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria |
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PMID:15656510 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4041 |
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Ryan, C.T.; Schaer, B.L.D.; Nunamaker, D.M. |
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A novel wireless data acquisition system for the measurement of hoof accelerations in the exercising horse |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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38 |
Issue |
7 |
Pages |
671-674 |
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*Acceleration; Animals; Biomechanics; Equipment and Supplies/*veterinary; Hoof and Claw/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Kinetics; Musculoskeletal Physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*physiology; Running/physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: A device is needed to safely and wirelessly evaluate accelerations experienced by the horse hoof under a variety of surface conditions with the horse exercising at training or racing speeds. OBJECTIVES: To develop a miniaturised wireless data acquisition system (WDAS) which reliably records hoof accelerations and the times over which they occur in a minimally invasive manner in the exercising Thoroughbred. METHODS: The following criteria were set for device development: production of a lightweight and minimally invasive system, which provides an adequate acceleration range, appropriate frequency response to capture high speed events, and compatibility with a low power wireless telemetry system. Following device development, the WDAS was calibrated, and tested in 6 Thoroughbred horses over a variety of surfaces. RESULTS: Collection of acceleration in seven trials using 6 horses over a variety of surfaces resulted in repeatable acceleration data with respect to the overall characteristic shape of the impact profile. Impact accelerations varied with surface, ranging 34.8-191.7 g. Accelerations on take off were in a similar range, although higher in some trials. Peak impact accelerations tended to larger over the grass paddock surface, than either the indoor arena or the dirt track. During dirt track trials, accelerations on take-off were often comparably larger than those observed on impact within the same footfall. CONCLUSIONS: This study reports the development of a wireless system that successfully measures hoof acceleration in a minimally invasive manner over a variety of surface and exercise conditions. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The WDAS will be used in further studies to evaluate various components of the horse-racetrack interface, in an attempt to identify risk factors for musculoskeletal injury in the Thoroughbred racehorse. |
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Richard S. Reynolds, Jr. Comparative Orthopedic Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania 19348, USA |
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PMID:17228584 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4023 |
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Witte, T.H.; Knill, K.; Wilson, A.M. |
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Determination of peak vertical ground reaction force from duty factor in the horse (Equus caballus) |
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Journal Article |
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2004 |
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The Journal of Experimental Biology |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Biol |
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207 |
Issue |
Pt 21 |
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3639-3648 |
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*Acceleration; Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/physiology; *Gait; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Locomotion/*physiology; Telemetry; Time Factors |
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Measurement of peak vertical ground reaction force (GRFz) from multiple limbs simultaneously during high-speed, over-ground locomotion would enhance our understanding of the locomotor mechanics of cursorial animals. Here, we evaluate the accuracy of predicting peak GRFz from duty factor (the proportion of the stride for which the limb is in contact with the ground). Foot-mounted uniaxial accelerometers, combined with UHF FM telemetry, are shown to be practical and accurate for the field measurement of stride timing variables, including duty factor. Direct comparison with the force plate produces a mean error of 2.3 ms and 3.5 ms for the timing of foot on and foot off, respectively, across all gaits. Predictions of peak GRFz from duty factor show mean errors (with positive values indicating an overestimate) of 0.8+/-0.04 N kg(-1) (13%; N=42; mean +/- S.E.M.) at walk, -0.3+/-0.06 N kg(-1) (3%; N=75) at trot, -2.3+/-0.27 N kg(-1) (16%; N=18) for the non-lead limb at canter and +2.1+/-0.7 N kg(-1) (19%; N=9) for the lead limb at canter. The substantial over- and underestimate seen at canter, in the lead and non-lead limbs, respectively, is attributed to the different functions performed by the two limbs in the asymmetrical gaits. The difference in load experienced by the lead and non-lead limbs decreased with increasing speed. |
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Structure and Motion Lab, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK |
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0022-0949 |
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PMID:15371472 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3658 |
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McGuigan, M.P.; Wilson, A.M. |
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The effect of gait and digital flexor muscle activation on limb compliance in the forelimb of the horse Equus caballus |
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2003 |
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The Journal of Experimental Biology |
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J Exp Biol |
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206 |
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Pt 8 |
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1325-1336 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Forelimb/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Gait/*physiology; Horses/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Muscle Contraction/*physiology; Running |
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A horse's legs are compressed during the stance phase, storing and then returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units. The arrangement of the muscle-tendon units around the lever-like joints means that as the leg shortens the muscle-tendon units are stretched. The forelimb anatomy means that the leg can be conceptually divided into two springs: the proximal spring, from the scapula to the elbow, and the distal spring, from the elbow to the foot. In this paper we report the results of a series of experiments testing the hypothesis that there is minimal scope for muscle contraction in either spring to adjust limb compliance. Firstly, we demonstrate that the distal, passive leg spring changes length by 127 mm (range 106-128 mm) at gallop and the proximal spring by 12 mm (9-15 mm). Secondly, we demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between limb force and metacarpo-phalangeal (MCP) joint angle that is minimally influenced by digital flexor muscle activation in vitro or as a function of gait in vivo. Finally, we determined the relationship between MCP joint angle and vertical ground-reaction force at trot and then predicted the forelimb peak vertical ground-reaction force during a 12 m s(-1) gallop on a treadmill. These were 12.79 N kg(-1) body mass (BM) (range 12.07-13.73 N kg(-1) BM) for the lead forelimb and 15.23 N kg(-1) BM (13.51-17.10 N kg(-1) BM) for the non-lead forelimb. |
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Structure and Motion Laboratory, Veterinary Basic Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK. m.p.mcguigan@leeds.ac.uk |
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0022-0949 |
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PMID:12624168 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3655 |
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