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Waters, A. J., Nicol, C. J., & French, N. P. (2002). Factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours in young horses: findings of a four year prospective epidemiological study. Equine Vet J, 34(6), 572–579.
Abstract: Stereotypies are invariant and repetitive behaviour patterns that seemingly have no function, which tend to develop in captive animals faced with insoluble problems and may be indicative of reduced welfare. A 4 year prospective study of the factors influencing the development of stereotypic and redirected behaviours (abnormal behaviour) in a population of 225 young Thoroughbred and part-Thoroughbred horses was conducted between 1995 and 1999. Abnormal behaviour affected 34.7% of the population. Multivariable analysis showed that foals of low- or middle-ranking mares were less likely to develop abnormal behaviour than foals of dominant mares (rate ratio (RR) 0.23, P<0.01; RR 0.48, P<0.01, respectively). Weaning by confinement in a stable or barn was associated with an increased rate of development of abnormal behaviour, compared with paddock-weaning (RR 2.19, P<0.05), and housing in barns, rather than at grass after weaning, was associated with a further increase (RR 2.54, P<0.01). Specific stereotypic and redirected behaviours were then considered as separate outcomes. Crib-biting was initiated by 10.5% of horses at median age 20 weeks, weaving by 4.6% of horses at median age 60 weeks, box-walking by 2.3% of horses at median age 64 weeks and wood-chewing by 30.3% of horses at median age 30 weeks. Wood-chewing developed at a lower rate in horses born to subordinate or mid-ranking mares than in horses born to dominant mares (RR 0.29, P<0.01; RR 0.41, P<0.01, respectively), and at a higher rate in horses kept in barns or stables rather than at grass after weaning (RR 4.49, P<0.001; RR 1A6, P<0.001, respectively). Feeding concentrates after weaning was associated with a 4-fold increase in the rate of development of crib-biting (RR 4.12, P = 0.02). The results of this study support the idea that simple changes in feeding, housing and weaning practices could substantially lower the incidence of abnormal behaviour in young horses.
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Hothersall, B., & Nicol, C. (2009). Role of Diet and Feeding in Normal and Stereotypic Behaviors in Horses. Clinical Nutrition, 25(1), 167–181.
Abstract: This article reviews the effects of diet on equine feeding behavior and feeding patterns, before considering the evidence that diet affects reactivity in horses. A growing body of work suggests that fat- and fiber-based diets may result in calmer patterns of behavior, and possible mechanisms that may underpin these effects are discussed. In contrast, there is little evidence that herbal- or tryptophan-containing supplements influence equine behavior in any measurable way. The role of diet in the development of abnormal oral behaviors, particularly the oral stereotypy crib-biting, is also reviewed, and suggestions for future work are presented.
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Hoff, M. P., Nadler, R. D., & Maple, T. L. (1981). Development of infant independence in a captive group of lowland gorillas. Dev Psychobiol, 14(3), 251–265.
Abstract: In March 1976, 3 lowlands gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) were born to primiparous females living with an adult male in a large compound at the field station of the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center of Emory University. Observations of parent and infant behavior began at the birth of the infants, using several methods of data collection. This report focuses on the development of independence in these infants over the 1st 1 1/2 years of life. As expected, measures of mother-infant contact and proximity decreased with age. Several measures suggested that infant independence developed as an interactive process between mothers and infants, with primary responsibility changing over the months of study. Maternal behaviors that served to maintain mother-infant contact were found to decrease with age, with an eventual shift to infant responsibility for contact maintenance. Additionally, the adult male appeared to influence developing independence as reflected in the maternal protectiveness evoked by his behavior.
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Dubcová, J., Bartošová, J., & Komárková, M. (2012). Impact of weaning method on weanlings’ weight gain in domestic horses. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Artificial weaning is associated with various stresses for the foal, such as loss of the mother, feeding changes, new and unfamiliar environment, etc. We investigated the impact of two different methods of abrupt weaning on weight gain in group housed Kladruby horses born 2009 (National Stud Kladruby nad Labem, CZ). Two groups of the foals were weaned abruptly at age from 5,5 to 8 months and transported to the other facility but the first group (G1, N=14) spent one week in their home environment after their mothers were led away. The other foals (G2, N=15) were moved away immediately after separation from the mothers (i.e. they lost the mother and known environment at one time). Foals were weighed: at the weaning day, weekly within the first month and then monthly up to 6 months after weaning. Neither birth nor weaning weight differed significantly between the two groups kept under similar nutrition. We hypothesised that a week spent in the home environment should reduce foal’s weight loss usually following the loss of the mother and moving to the unknown environment. The weaning type significantly influenced weight gain the foals reached one week after weaning (p < 0.001, GLM, PROC GLM, SAS). Contrary to our expectations, G1 foals lost their weight whereas G2 ones gained weight during the same period (-4.9 vs. +3.2 kg). G1 foals reached back their weaning weight within 3 weeks after weaning. The weight of the foals at 6 months after weaning was still marginally higher in G2 than G1foals (388.2 vs. 365.7 kg, p < 0.07). We found lower detrimental effect on weight gain in G2 foals (i.e. weaned and immediately moved) compared to G1 foals (weaned and stayed before moved). Thus, our results indicate lower stress induced to the foals in more radical type of weaning. Supported by AWIN, EU FP7 project No. 266213.
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