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Author |
Penzhorn, B.L. |
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Title |
A Long-term Study of Social Organisation and Behaviour of Cape Mountain Zebras Equus zebra zebra |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
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Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie |
Abbreviated Journal |
Z. Tierpsychol. |
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64 |
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2 |
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97-146 |
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Abstract and Summary 1. The social structure of Cape mountain zebras consists of breeding herds and bachelor groups. The breeding herds, which comprise 1 stallion, 1–5 mares and their offspring, remain stable over many years. When the stallion is displaced by another the mares usually remain together, although some herds split up. A dominance hierarchy exists, but leadership is not confined to the dominant member. Foals leave their maternal herds at a mean age of 21.9 months. The herd stallion tries to prevent foals from leaving the herd.2. Bachelor groups are not as rigidly structured as breeding herds but core groups could be identified through a Principal Components Analysis. Family ties may be important in the establishment of core groups. Bachelors succeed in becoming herd stallions when ca. 5 years old.3. The recipient of a threat moving away seems to be an adequate response. Submissive behaviour was only recorded in bachelors. Fighting is rare, with biting as an important element. Compared to plains zebras, sounds made in communication are limited. Social grooming mainly occurs between mare and foal. Grooming intention movements may be an appeasement gesture.4. An oestrus mare assumes a characteristic posture. Flehmen occurs. Urine and faeces of oestrus mares are often marked by the stallion. This cannot be explained functionally and is not restricted to eliminations of oestrus mares. Penis erection and jerking by resting stallions could serve as a warning signal, but may be masturbatory.5. The herd stallion actively herds members of his herd and reduces intraherd antagonism by means of threats. He usually leads when the herd goes to drink and brings up the rear when the herd moves away from danger.6. Play was rarely recorded.7. A challenge ritual is performed when herd stallions meet. When challenged by a herd stallion, a bachelor is submissive.8. Foals initially remain close to their mothers and have to learn the correct orientation when suckling. A single adoption was recorded.9. Individuals apparently recognise each other after long periods.10. Cape mountain zebras react to alarm signals of antelopes.11. The greater part of the day is devoted to grazing. A significantly greater percentage of the day is spent resting in winter than in summer. Cape mountain zebras mainly stand while resting, but resting in sternal or lateral recumbency also occurs. Defaecation and urination occurs throughout the day with no definite peaks.12. Grooming consists of localized muscle contractions, shaking, striking one part of the body against another or against the ground, rubbing, dust-bathing, scratching and nibbling.13. In cold weather, Cape mountain zebras seek shelter in wooded kloofs. Zusammenfassung * 1Bergzebras bilden Familien und Junggesellengruppen. Familien bestehen aus einem Hengst, 1–5 Stuten und deren Nachwuchs. Harems bleiben jahrelang unverändert. Wird der Hengst verdrängt, so bleiben die Stuten meist zusammen. Es besteht eine Rangordnung, doch führt nicht nur das dominante Tier. Fohlen verlassen die Familie mit durchschnittlich 21,9 Monaten. Der Familienhengst versucht, die Fohlen am Weggehen zu hindern. * 2Junggesellengruppen sind nicht so fest strukturiert wie die Familien, doch lassen sich Kerngruppen durch Hauptkomponentenanalyse identifizieren. Familienbeziehungen können für das Entstehen soldier Kerngruppen wichtig sein. Junggesellen können im Alter von ungefähr 5 Jahren Familienhengste werden. * 3Flucht ist offenbar die ausreichende Reaktion auf Drohung. Unterwürfiges Verhalten wurde nur bei Junggesellen beobachtet. Kämpfe sieht man selten. Bergzebras haben weniger Kommunikationslaute als Steppenzebras. Soziale Hautpflege findet meist zwischen Stute und Fohlen statt. PflegeIntentionsbewegungen können zur Streitschlichtung benutzt werden. * 4Rossige Stuten nehmen eine charakteristische Stellung ein. Flehmen kommt vor. Harn und Kot rossiger Stuten werden oft vom Hengst markiert. Erektion des Penis mit Zuckungen beim ruhenden Hengst kann entweder als Warnsignal oder als Masturbation gedeutet werden. * 5Der Hengst herdet die Mitglieder seiner Familie und bremst innerfamiliäre Aggression durch Drohen. Gewöhnlich führt er die Familie zur Tränke und verläßt als Letzter die Gefahrenzone. * 6Spielen wurde selten beobachtet. * 7Wenn Familienhengste sich treffen, findet ein Herausforderungs-Ritual statt. Junggesellen reagieren unterwürfig, wenn sie so herausgefordert werden. * 8Fohlen bleiben anfangs nahe bei der Mutter. Sie müssen die richtige Orientierung beim Säugen erlernen. Eine Adoption wurde registriert. * 9Individuen scheinen sich nach langer Zeit wiederzuerkennen. * 10Bergzebras reagieren auf die Alarmsignale von Antilopen. * 11Der größte Teil des Tages wird zum Grasen gebraucht. Im Winter gibt es signifikant längere Ruheperioden als im Sommer. Bergzebras ruhen meist stehend. Exkremente werden den ganzen Tag über ausgeschieden. Zur Körperpflege gehören örtliche Muskelkontraktionen, Schütteln, Schlagen eines Körperteils gegen einen anderen oder gegen den Boden, Reiben, Staubbaden, Kratzen und Knabbern. * 12Bei kaltem Wetter suchen Bergzebras in bewaldeten Schluchten Schutz. |
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Blackwell Publishing Ltd |
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1439-0310 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5339 |
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Author |
Sherry, D.F.; Galef Jr, B.G. |
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Title |
Cultural transmission without imitation: Milk bottle opening by birds |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
Animal Behaviour |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Behav. |
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32 |
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3 |
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937-938 |
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0003-3472 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5611 |
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Author |
Price, E.O. |
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Title |
Behavioral aspects of animal domestication |
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Year |
1984 |
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Q Rev Biol |
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59 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ Price1984 |
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6239 |
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Author |
Sato, S. |
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Title |
Social licking pattern and its relationships to social dominance and live weight gain in weaned calves |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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12 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
25-32 |
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Abstract |
Social licking patterns of heifer and steer herds were observed and recorded during periods of resting and intermittent feeding. The results revealed the following features: (1) heifers and steers had 15.0 and 15.2 social licking interactions per hour which lasted for 37.8 and 41.0 s on average, respectively. The average time an animal spent licking was about 25 s per hour; (2) all the animals in the herds were licked by others, but only 72.3% of the animals licked other animals; (3) the animals close in the social hierarchy tended to lick each other for a longer time than did remote animals; (4) the time receiving l licking and weight gain tended to be positively correlated. The observations suggest that (1) the motivation of giving licking may be individual-specific and may be influenced by genetic factors, while that of receiving licking appears to be general, and that (2) social licking may mean not only cleaning the skin and hair of a passive partner, but also leading it to psychological stability. |
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Elsevier |
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0168-1591 |
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doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(84)90093-5 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6407 |
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Author |
Keiper, R.; Houpt, K. |
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Title |
Reproduction in feral horses: an eight-year study |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
American journal of veterinary research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Am J Vet Res |
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45 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
991-995 |
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Keywords |
Abortion, Veterinary/epidemiology; Anestrus; Animal Population Groups/*physiology; Animals; Animals, Wild/*physiology; Birth Rate; Female; Fertility; Horse Diseases/epidemiology; Horses/*physiology; Lactation; Male; Maryland; Pregnancy; *Reproduction; Seasons; Sex Ratio; Virginia |
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The reproductive rate and foal survival of the free-ranging ponies on Assateague Island National Seashore were studied for 8 years, 1975 to 1982. Most (52%) of the 86 foals were born in May, 13% were born in April, 22.6% in June, 10.4% in July, and less than 1% in August and September. The mean foaling rate was 57.1 +/- 3.9% and the survival rate was 88.3 +/- 3.6%. Forty-eight colts and 55 fillies were born (sex ratio 53% female). Mares less than 3 years old did not foal and the foaling rate of 3-year-old mares was only 23%, that of 4-year-old mares was 46%, that of 5-year-old mares was 53%, and 6-year-old mares was 69%. The relatively poor reproduction rate was believed to be a consequence of the stress of lactating while carrying a foal when forage quality on the island was low. The hypothesis was supported by the higher reproductive rate (74.4 +/- 2.4%) of the ponies in the Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on the southern part of the island. Their foals are weaned and sold in July each year. Despite the low reproductive rate on Assateague Island National Seashore , the number of ponies increased from 43 to 80, a 90% increase in the 8-year period or greater than 10%/yr. There were 24 deaths and 8 dispersals from the study area. |
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0002-9645 |
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PMID:6732036 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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665 |
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Author |
Seyfarth, R.M.; Cheney, D.L. |
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Title |
The acoustic features of vervet monkey grunts |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Acoust Soc Am |
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Volume |
75 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
1623-1628 |
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*Acoustics; Animals; Auditory Perception; Cercopithecus/*physiology; Cercopithecus aethiops/*physiology; Cues; Dominance-Subordination; Female; Male; Social Behavior; Sound Spectrography; *Vocalization, Animal |
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East African vervet monkeys give short (125 ms), harsh-sounding grunts to each other in a variety of social situations: when approaching a dominant or subordinate member of their group, when moving into a new area of their range, or upon seeing another group. Although all these vocalizations sound similar to humans, field playback experiments have shown that the monkeys distinguish at least four different calls. Acoustic analysis reveals that grunts have an aperiodic F0, at roughly 240 Hz. Most grunts exhibit a spectral peak close to this irregular F0. Grunts may also contain a second, rising or falling frequency peak, between 550 and 900 Hz. The location and changes in these two frequency peaks are the cues most likely to be used by vervets when distinguishing different grunt types. |
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0001-4966 |
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PMID:6736426 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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703 |
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Author |
Seyfarth, R.M.; Cheney, D.L. |
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Title |
Grooming, alliances and reciprocal altruism in vervet monkeys |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
Nature |
Abbreviated Journal |
Nature |
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308 |
Issue |
5959 |
Pages |
541-543 |
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*Altruism; Animals; Cercopithecus/*physiology; Cercopithecus aethiops/*physiology; *Grooming; *Social Behavior; Vocalization, Animal |
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Reciprocal altruism refers to the exchange of beneficial acts between individuals, in which the benefits to the recipient exceed the cost to the altruist. Theory predicts that cooperation among unrelated animals can occur whenever individuals encounter each other regularly and are capable of adjusting their cooperative behaviour according to experience. Although the potential for reciprocal altruism exists in many animal societies, most interactions occur between closely related individuals, and examples of reciprocity among non-kin are rare. The field experiments on vervet monkeys which we present here demonstrate that grooming between unrelated individuals increases the probability that they will subsequently attend to each others' solicitations for aid. Vervets appear to be more willing to aid unrelated individuals if those individuals have behaved affinitively toward them in the recent past. In contrast, recent grooming between close genetic relatives appears to have no effect on their willingness to respond to each other's solicitations for aid. |
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0028-0836 |
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PMID:6709060 |
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704 |
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Author |
Ralston, S.L. |
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Title |
Controls of feeding in horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
Journal of Animal Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Anim Sci. |
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59 |
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5 |
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1354-1361 |
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Animal Feed; Animals; Digestive Physiology; Energy Metabolism; Feeding Behavior/*physiology; Food Preferences; Horses/*physiology; Oropharynx/physiology; Satiation/physiology; Smell; Taste |
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Members of the genus Equus are large, nonruminant herbivores. These animals utilize the products of both enzymatic digestion in the small intestine and bacterial fermentation (volatile fatty acids) in the cecum and large colon as sources of metabolizable energy. Equine animals rely primarily upon oropharyngeal and external stimuli to control the size and duration of an isolated meal. Meal frequency, however, is regulated by stimuli generated by the presence and (or) absorption of nutrients (sugars, fatty acids, protein) in both the large and small intestine plus metabolic cues reflecting body energy stores. The control of feeding in this species reflects its evolutionary development in an environment which selected for consumption of small, frequent meals of a variety of forages. |
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0021-8812 |
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PMID:6392275 |
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1954 |
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Author |
Clark, T.B.; Peterson, B.V.; Whitcomb, R.F.; Henegar, R.B.; Hackett, K.J.; Tully, J.G. |
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Title |
Spiroplasmas in the Tabanidae |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
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Israel Journal of Medical Sciences |
Abbreviated Journal |
Isr J Med Sci |
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20 |
Issue |
10 |
Pages |
1002-1005 |
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Animals; Diptera/*microbiology/ultrastructure; Ecology; Female; Hemolymph/microbiology; Male; Maryland; North Carolina; Plants/microbiology; Spiroplasma/classification/*isolation & purification/physiology |
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Spiroplasmas were observed in seven species of the family Tabanidae (horse flies and deer flies). This is the fifth family of the order Diptera now known to harbor spiroplasmas. Noncultivable spiroplasmas were seen in the hemolymph of three species of the genus Tabanus, and cultivable forms were isolated from the guts of six species in three genera. Isolates from T. calens and T. sulcifrons were serologically similar and closely related to a spiroplasma in the lampyrid beetle, Ellychnia corrusca. These three isolates represent a new serogroup. Isolates from Hybomitra lasiophthalma were related to Group IV strains, while those from T. nigrovittatus and Chrysops sp. both represented new serogroups. At least some tabanids probably acquire spiroplasmas from contaminated flower surfaces. The possibility of vertebrate reservoirs for some tabanid spiroplasmas remains an open question. |
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0021-2180 |
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PMID:6511308 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2687 |
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Author |
Barton, M.D.; Hughes, K.L. |
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Title |
Ecology of Rhodococcus equi |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1984 |
Publication |
Veterinary Microbiology |
Abbreviated Journal |
Vet Microbiol |
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9 |
Issue |
1 |
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65-76 |
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Actinomycetales/growth & development/immunology/*isolation & purification; Animal Husbandry; Animals; Antigens, Bacterial/immunology; Artiodactyla/*microbiology; Australia; Digestive System/microbiology; Ecology; Feces/*microbiology; Horses/*microbiology; Hypersensitivity, Delayed; Rabbits/microbiology; *Soil Microbiology |
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A selective broth enrichment technique was used to study the distribution of Rhodococcus equi in soil and grazing animals. Rhodococcus equi was isolated from 54% of soils examined and from the gut contents, rectal faeces and dung of all grazing herbivorous species examined. Rhodococcus equi was not isolated from the faeces or dung of penned animals which did not have access to grazing. The isolation rate from dung was much higher than from other samples and this was found to be due to the ability of R. equi to multiply more readily in dung. Delayed hypersensitivity tests were carried out on horses, sheep and cattle, but only horses reacted significantly. The physiological characteristics of R. equi and the nature of its distribution in the environment suggested that R. equi is a soil organism. |
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0378-1135 |
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PMID:6719819 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2688 |
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