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Nicol, C. J. |
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Title  |
Equine learning: progress and suggestions for future research |
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Journal Article |
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2002 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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193-208 |
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Learning; Horse; Equine; Discrimination; Training |
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Horses are well able to form classical and instrumental associations and so the focus of much recent research has been on the stimulus control of instrumental learning. Horses appear to discriminate using spatial cues more easily than other stimulus features, as indicated both by the speed of initial task acquisition and by the extent to which acquired discriminations can be reversed. Phenomena associated with discrimination learning in laboratory animals, including generalisation and peak shift, have been demonstrated in horses. However, the ability of horses to classify stimuli into categories is more controversial. Although there is some evidence that horses may be able to form categories based on similarities in the physical appearance of different stimuli, there is currently no evidence that they are able to develop abstract concepts. Their performance on social learning tasks has also been poor. Few correlations are observed between the learning ability of individual horses on different tasks, suggesting that it may not be possible to classify individual horses as `good' or `poor' learners. Better learning performance by horses that are naturally calm is probably due to reduced interference in the learning process. Correct handling procedures can lower reactivity levels in horses, and may facilitate learning in some circumstances. Future research on equine learning needs to take into account the complex nature of equine social interaction. Studies on the effects of stress on learning, and on social and spatial cognition, are also particularly needed. |
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405 |
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McCall, C.A.; Salters, M.A.; Johnson, K.B.; Silverman, S.J.; McElhenney, W.H.; Lishak, R.S. |
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Equine utilization of a previously learned visual stimulus to solve a novel task |
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Journal Article |
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2003 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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82 |
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3 |
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163-172 |
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Horse; Learned stimulus; Novel task; Discrimination |
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Forty-four horses were used to determine if a learned stimulus could be used to increase acquisition of a response unrelated to the original learned task. Horses were paired by age, breed and sex. One randomly chosen horse from each pair served as the control while the remaining horse was trained to respond to a visual stimulus by pushing a lever to obtain a food reward. In Experiment I (n=28), the food reward was delivered in a feed box located equidistant between two levers located 2.7 m apart on one wall of the test stall. Trained horses were given 30 training trials daily until they achieved at least 85% correct responses in three nonconsecutive days. After each trained horse reached criterion, both horses in the pair were tested in 30 trials daily for five consecutive days in a modified Y maze. The stimulus that indicated the correct lever in the initial training task was used to signify the correct arm of the maze for both the control and trained horses. The correct arm of the maze was changed randomly during each daily session, and correct choices resulted in a food reward. In Experiment II (n=16), levers were located on opposite walls (11 m apart) of the test stall, and the stimulus and modified Y maze were simplified. Trained horses received 15 training trials daily until they reached at least 85% correct responses on three consecutive days. As each trained horse achieved this criterion, both horses in the pair were tested in a maze for 15 trials daily for 7 days. Again, the stimulus from initial lever-pressing task was used to signify the rewarded arm of the maze. Correct choices of trained and control horses in both experiments were compared using a paired t-test. In Experiment I, no differences (P>0.34) in mean correct responses were detected between trained and control horses on the first day in the maze (15.3 and 16.8, respectively) or after 5 days in the maze (84.0 and 82.1, respectively). Similarly, in Experiment II, trained and control horses did not differ (P>0.50) in mean correct responses on the first day (6.9 and 7.4, respectively) or after 7 days in the maze (63.6 and 61.6, respectively). These results indicate that the stimuli used to solve the lever-pressing task were not utilized by horses in the maze task, and that horses may have difficulty transferring learned visual stimuli to new tasks. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3587 |
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Scheibe, K.M.; Schleusner, T.; Berger, A.; Eichhorn, K.; Langbein, J.; Dal Zotto, L.; Streich, W.J. |
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ETHOSYS (R)--new system for recording and analysis of behaviour of free-ranging domestic animals and wildlife |
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1998 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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55 |
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3-4 |
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195-211 |
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Telemetry; Diurnal patterns; Activity; Rhythms; Feeding and nutrition |
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A storage telemetry system has been developed to monitor domestic animals and wildlife, and has been tested under variable conditions on sheep, Przewalski horse and mouflon. It can be used for automatic recording of different patterns of behaviour, such as activity and feeding, and is based on advanced analysis of sensor-emitted signals. The system is made up of collars (ETHOREC) with sensors and electronic devices for behaviour recording, a central station (ETHOLINK) and software for data transmission and processing (ETHODAT). All components of the ETHOREC recording device are integrated in the collar. Long-time recording of behaviour through up to four different channels and in numerous animals at one and the same time are necessary elements to facilitate biorhythmic analysis of animals under free-ranging conditions. The results obtained from this telemetry system were compared with visual observations on six sheep and four Przewalski horses. Parallel recordings were taken from four sheep, using a recorder for jaw movements. Locomotor activity usually was rated somewhat higher by observers, whereas feed uptake was rated lower. Higher feed uptake values were measured by means of the jaw movement recorder, although deviations thus measured varied less than those noticed by visual observations. All measured series exhibited significant correlations with control values. The system, consequently, was found to be more suitable for determination of diurnal patterns, change over time and relative comparison between behaviour levels than it actually was for measurement of absolute duration of a given behaviour. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2237 |
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Ellard, M.-E.; Crowell-Davis, S.L. |
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Evaluating equine dominance in draft mares |
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1989 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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24 |
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1 |
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55-75 |
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The social hierarchy of a herd of 12 draft mares was assessed using agonism in the field, paired-feeding tests and a group-feeding test. Results from the paired-feeding test correlated significantly, but imperfectly, with those from the field. Differential motivation among subjects for the feed and disruption of ambiguous relationships among mares reduced the reliability of the paired-feeding test as a measure of social dominance. Results from the group-feeding test did not correlate significantly with the field hierarchy and only a few mares ever ate from the bucket. Height, weight and age each correlated significantly with rank; a mare's tendency to remain alone did not. Total aggressive scores during the paired-feeding test correlated with rank. However, a high-ranking mare was no more aggressive to each of her subordinates than was a low-ranking mare. Rather, all mares aggressed more against individuals close in rank to themselves and with preferred field associates. In the field, mares associated most with other mares of similar rank. |
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662 |
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McCall, C.A.; Hall, S.; McElhenney, W.H.; Cummins, K.A. |
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Evaluation and comparison of four methods of ranking horses based on reactivity |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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96 |
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1-2 |
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115-127 |
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Horse; Reactivity tests; Heart rate; Emotionality; Temperament |
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Four methods of ranking horses on reactivity were evaluated and compared: isolation from conspecifics, presentation of a static novel stimulus, traversing a novel stimulus in a runway (isolation, novel stimulus and runway tests, respectively) and assigning subjective emotionality scores. In all tests, horses' heart rates were recorded and behaviour was videotaped. To be considered a valid test of reactivity, at least one heart rate and one behavioural measurement in the test had to change significantly between treatments (tranquilizer administation versus sham tranquilizer administration), and behavioural measures had to be displayed in at least 75% of the trials. Forty horses performed each of the three tests daily on three different days in a switchback design. Horses were assigned randomly to a daily test sequence, which was maintained throughout the study. In the runway test, no significant difference in heart rate values in tranquilized and non-tranquilized horses was found, and no behavioural attribute was displayed in more than 52% of the trials; therefore it was rejected as a valid test of reactivity. Both isolation and novel stimulus tests produced valid measurements. Mean heart rate was the most precise physiological measure for these tests, and walking and defecation frequency were the most precise behavioural measures for novel stimulus and isolation tests, respectively. Mean heart rates on the novel stimulus and isolation tests were correlated (rs = 0.79, P < 0.01) indicating that these tests produced similar rankings based on physiological responses. However, behavioural measures ranked horses differently (rs = 0.27, P < 0.10) on the tests. Rank correlations between mean heart rates and behavioural measures were higher in the novel stimulus (rs = 0.66, P < 0.01) than the isolation test (rs = 0.55, P < 0.01), indicating that the novel stimulus test ranked horses based on either physiological or behavioural responses more similarly than did the isolation test. Therefore, the novel stimulus test was considered the more accurate evaluation of reactivity. Subjective emotionality scores were correlated moderately with mean heart rates (rs > 0.33, P < 0.01) from the novel stimulus and isolation tests and with walking scores (rs = 0.47, P < 0.01) from the novel stimulus test. Assignment of subjective emotionality scores was not as accurate as the novel stimulus or isolation tests in ranking horses for reactivity. Using physiological data alone, combining physiological and behavioural measurements or using more than one behavioural measurement in reactivity tests may reflect the reactivity of the horse better than a single behavioural measurement. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3578 |
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Lloyd, A.S.; Martin, J.E.; Bornett-Gauci, H.L.I.; Wilkinson, R.G. |
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Evaluation of a novel method of horse personality assessment: Rater-agreement and links to behaviour |
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2007 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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105 |
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1-3 |
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205-222 |
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Personality; Horse; Individual differences; Behaviour; Reliability |
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The efficacy of questionnaire-based personality assessment has been shown in a variety of animal and human personality studies. There has been a recent increase in questionnaire-based studies focussing on equine personality but with a lack of comparability to studies on other species. The aim of this study was to test the reliability of an assessment method originally developed for primates and demonstrate reliability using three criteria (1) assessments by independent observers must agree with one another, (2) these assessments must predict behaviours and real-world outcomes and (3) observer ratings must be shown to reflect genuine attributes of the individuals rated, not merely the observer's implicit personality theories about how traits co-vary. The personality of 61 horses (Equus caballus) was assessed using a questionnaire constructed of 30 behaviourally defined adjectives (BDAs). Horses were each assessed by three judges, in addition to a total of 2 h behaviour observations recorded per horse. Rater agreement was demonstrated for 72.1% of the horses and 25 of the BDAs. Principal component analysis was carried out on the rating data and revealed six underlying personality components that were labelled “dominance”, “anxiousness”, “excitability”, “protection”, “sociability” and “inquisitiveness”. Component scores for horses were correlated against behavioural observations for the same horses and revealed significant correlations with 20 of the recorded behaviour variables. Correlations between specific components and their associated behaviours were logical and consistent with the types of behaviours that would be expected to be linked with such personality types. The data were shown to meet all three criteria and provided strong evidence that the assessment method was reliably measuring horse personality. |
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1981 |
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Mal, M.E.; McCall, C.A.; Newland, C.; Cummins, K.A. |
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Evaluation of a one-trial learning apparatus to test learning ability in weanling horses |
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1993 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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35 |
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4 |
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305-311 |
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Fourteen Arabian foals were used to determine if a one-trial appetitive conditioning task, developed for laboratory rats, could be adapted for use in equine learning research. The learning apparatus consisted of a 1.5 m x 0.6 m wooden grid containing 40 compartments. Seven foals received a complete learning test which consisted of placing a foal in a pen with the learning apparatus on one wall, recording the foal's behavior for 5 min and then placing a food reinforcer in a target compartment (TC). After location of the food, the foal's behavior was recorded for an additional 5 min. Total visits made to the apparatus and compartments visited by the foal were recorded. The remaining seven foals received a test in which no reinforcer was placed in the TC. These foals were re-tested the next day with reinforcement. After location of the food reinforcer, all foals exhibited more visits to the apparatus, visits to the TC, visits one compartment from the TC, and visits greater than one and less than or equal to two compartments from the TC (P<0.05). Mean distance of visits from the TC decreased after location of the reinforcer (P<0.05). Increased frequency of visits to the apparatus and concentration of visits around the TC after finding the reinforcer suggest that foals had learned the location of the reinforcer. Results suggest that a one-trial appetitive conditioning test may be applicable in equine learning research. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3688 |
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Rousing, T.; Waiblinger, S. |
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Evaluation of on-farm methods for testing the human-animal relationship in dairy herds with cubicle loose housing systems--test-retest and inter-observer reliability and consistency to familiarity of test person |
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2004 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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85 |
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3-4 |
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215-231 |
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Cattle welfare; Fearful behaviour; Human-animal relationship |
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The human-animal relationship is an important factor when considering animal welfare at herd level. In the present study, two behavioural tests for the on-farm assessment of the human-animal relationship at herd level of dairy cows housed in loose housing cubicle systems were evaluated with respect to inter-observer reliability, test-retest reliability, effect of familiarity of test person as well as inter-correlation of the two tests. In a voluntary animal approach (VAA) test, the number of cows and the latencies to approach and touch a stationary test person was measured. In an avoidance (AV) test, the cows' avoidance reactions to an approaching test person were categorised. A first study was carried out in 12 commercial Danish and Austrian dairy farms. On each farm, both behaviour tests were carried out on the same day and repeated within 4-5 days. For each test, cows were tested by both an unfamiliar and a familiar test person (the stock-person) and two observers simultaneously registered the animals' test responses. The inter-observer reliability of both behavioural tests was found to be high (VAA: 2.5-m approach r=0.98 (P<0.001) and touch r=0.97 (P<0.001); AV: Kappa coefficientweighted=0.886 (prevalence index for flight distance>=2 m is 0.636)). The cows at herd level showed shortest latency for touching an unfamiliar test person on the first test day (P=0.006). Further, the AV test had a high test-retest reliability (Kappa coefficientweighted=0.503 (prevalence index for flight distance>=2 m is -0.660)) and results indicated no effect of familiarity of test person (Kappa coefficientweighted=0.463 (prevalence index for flight distance>=2 m is -0.677)). In a second study, the correlation between the two behavioural tests (similar measures) was evaluated. On each of 10 commercial Danish dairy farms with loose housing cubicle systems at four repeated sessions, both behaviour tests were carried out on the same day. For each test cows were tested by the stock-person. The VAA and AV tests at herd level were highly correlated (rs=-0.84; P=0.002). The results suggest that the AV test is valid and applicable for on-farm assessment of the human-animal relationship at herd level. This accounts only partly for the VAA test, which seem to be more unclear regarding motivation for the animals' approach behaviour. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4398 |
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Fureix, C.; Bourjade, M.; Henry, S.; Sankey, C.; Hausberger, M. |
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Exploring aggression regulation in managed groups of horses Equus caballus |
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2012 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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138 |
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3–4 |
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216-228 |
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Horses; Social behaviour; Aggression regulation; Coping in group; Management; Social development |
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Horses are highly social animals that have evolved to live in social groups. However, in modern husbandry systems, single housing prevails where horses experience social isolation, a challenge-to-welfare factor. One major reason for this single housing is the owners’ concerns that horses may injure each other during aggressive encounters. However, in natural conditions, serious injuries due to aggressive encounters are rare. What could therefore explain the claimed risks of group living for domestic horses? Basing our questioning on the current knowledge of the social life of horses in natural conditions, we review different practices that may lead to higher levels of aggression in horses and propose practical solutions. Observations of natural and feral horses mostly indicate a predominance of low frequencies and mild forms of aggression, based on subtle communication signals and ritualized displays and made possible by group stability (i.e. stable composition), dominance hierarchy and learning of appropriate social skills by young horses. Obviously, adults play a major role here in canalizing undesirable behaviours, and social experience during development, associated with a diversity of social partners, seems to be a prerequisite for the young horse to become socially skilled. Given the natural propensity of horses to have a regulation of aggression in groups, the tendency to display more aggression in groups of domestic horses under some management practices seems clearly related to the conditions offered. We therefore review the managing practices that could trigger aggressiveness in horses. Non social practices (space, resource availability) and social practices (group size, stability of membership, composition and opportunities for social experiences during development) in groups of domestic horses are discussed here. Finally, we propose simple practical solutions leading to more peaceful interactions in groups of domestic horses, based on the knowledge of horses’ natural social life which therefore should be enhanced (e.g. ensuring roughage availability, favouring group stability, introducing socially experienced adults in groups of young horses, etc.). The state of the art indicates that many questions still need to be answered. Given the importance of the associated welfare issues and the consequences on the use of horses, further research is required, which could benefit horses… and humans. |
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5648 |
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Mills, D.S.; Alston, R.D.; Rogers, V.; Longford, N.T. |
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Factors associated with the prevalence of stereotypic behaviour amongst Thoroughbred horses passing through auctioneer sales |
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2002 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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115-124 |
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Behaviour; Horses; Management; Prevalence; Stereotypy; Stress |
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The objective of this study was to evaluate whether sex, age and/or coat colour were associated with the occurrence of stereotypic behaviour in the horse and to assess whether the occurrence of one type of stereotypy in an individual was associated with the occurrence of another specific type of stereotypy. The incidence of stereotypic boxwalking, weaving (both locomotor stereotypies) and oral stereotypy in 4061 Thoroughbred horses passing through five bloodstock auctions were recorded from sale declarations and information on returns. An overall prevalence of 5.1% was recorded, and varied with sex (P<0.001) and age (P<0.001) but not coat colour (P=0.495). Prevalence was higher in females, geldings, and 2-year-olds. Examination of the assumption that stereotypies are acquired independently suggested a higher than expected prevalence of animals with more than one stereotypy. The interaction was not the same for all forms of stereotypy recorded. The effect was greatest between boxwalking and weaving, (odds ratio 13.6) whilst combinations involving oral and locomotor stereotypies had lower odds ratios (between 2.9 and 4.9). |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3636 |
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