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	Author	Tomasello, M.; Davis-Dasilva, M.; Camak, L.; Bard, K.
	Title	Observational learning of tool-use by young chimpanzees			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1987	Publication		Abbreviated Journal	Human Evolution
	Volume	2	Issue	2	Pages	175-183
	Keywords	Chimpanzees; Observational Learning; Tool-Use
	Abstract	In the current study two groups of young chimpanzees (4–6 and 8–9 years old) were given a T-bar and a food item that could only be reached by using the T-bar. Experimental subjects were given the opportunity to observe an adult using the stick as a tool to obtain the food; control subjects were exposed to the adult but were given no demonstration. Subjects in the older group did not learn to use the tool. Subjects in the younger group who were exposed to the demonstrator learned to use the stick as a tool much more readily than those who were not. None of the subjects demonstrated an ability to imitatively copy the demonstrator's precise behavioral strategies. More than simple stimulus enhancement was involved, however, since both groups manipulated the T-bar, but only experimental subjects used it in its function as a tool. Our findings complement naturalistic observations in suggesting that chimpanzee tool-use is in some sense «culturally transmitted» — though perhaps not in the same sense as social-conventional behaviors for which precise copying of conspecifics is crucial.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Kluwer Academic Publishers	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0393-9375	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5915
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Guttridge, T.L.; Dijk, S.; Stamhuis, E.J.; Krause, J.; Gruber, S.H.; Brown, C.
	Title	Social learning in juvenile lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2013	Publication		Abbreviated Journal	Animal Cognition
	Volume	16	Issue	1	Pages	55-64
	Keywords	Local and stimulus enhancement; Group living; Social facilitation; Social information use; Elasmobranchs
	Abstract	Social learning is taxonomically widespread and can provide distinct behavioural advantages, such as in finding food or avoiding predators more efficiently. Although extensively studied in bony fishes, no such empirical evidence exists for cartilaginous fishes. Our aim in this study was to experimentally investigate the social learning capabilities of juvenile lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris. We designed a novel food task, where sharks were required to enter a start zone and subsequently make physical contact with a target in order to receive a food reward. Naive sharks were then able to interact with and observe (a) pre-trained sharks, that is, ‘demonstrators’, or (b) sharks with no previous experience, that is, ‘sham demonstrators’. On completion, observer sharks were then isolated and tested individually in a similar task. During the exposure phase observers paired with ‘demonstrator’ sharks performed a greater number of task-related behaviours and made significantly more transitions from the start zone to the target, than observers paired with ‘sham demonstrators’. When tested in isolation, observers previously paired with ‘demonstrator’ sharks completed a greater number of trials and made contact with the target significantly more often than observers previously paired with ‘sham demonstrators’. Such experience also tended to result in faster overall task performance. These results indicate that juvenile lemon sharks, like numerous other animals, are capable of using socially derived information to learn about novel features in their environment. The results likely have important implications for behavioural processes, ecotourism and fisheries.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher	Springer-Verlag	Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5697
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	Author	Nelson, G.S.
	Title	Onchocerciasis			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1970	Publication	Advances in Parasitology	Abbreviated Journal	Adv Parasitol
	Volume	8	Issue		Pages	173-224
	Keywords	Africa; Animals; Anthelmintics/therapeutic use; Artiodactyla; Blindness/etiology; Cattle; Circadian Rhythm; Ddt; Diethylcarbamazine/therapeutic use; Diptera/anatomy & histology/growth & development; Dwarfism/etiology; Ecology; Eye/pathology; Feeding Behavior; Female; Geography; Haplorhini; Hernia, Femoral/etiology; Horses; Humans; Insect Vectors/growth & development; Larva/growth & development; Male; Onchocerca/classification/growth & development; *Onchocerciasis/diagnosis/drug therapy/epidemiology/immunology/pathology/prevention & control/veterinary; Primates; Serologic Tests; Skin/pathology; Skin Tests; Suramin/therapeutic use
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0065-308X	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:4997515			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2738
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Sudia, W.D.; Fernandez, L.; Newhouse, V.F.; Sanz, R.; Calisher, C.H.
	Title	Arbovirus vector ecology studies in Mexico during the 1972 Venezuelan equine encephalitis outbreak			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1975	Publication	American Journal of Epidemiology	Abbreviated Journal	Am J Epidemiol
	Volume	101	Issue	1	Pages	51-58
	Keywords	Animals; Arboviruses/isolation & purification; Culicidae/microbiology; Disease Vectors/microbiology; Ecology; Encephalitis Virus, St. Louis/isolation & purification; Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine/isolation & purification; Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine/isolation & purification; Encephalomyelitis, Equine/epidemiology/transmission/veterinary; Horse Diseases/epidemiology/transmission; Horses; Insect Vectors/microbiology; Mexico
	Abstract	Virus vector studies were conducted in the States of Durango, Chihuahua, and Tamaulipas, Mexico, in June and July 1972. Apparently only a low level of Venzuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus transmission to equines occured at the time of the study, and the infection was restricted to areas which had not experienced overt activity during the preceding year. The low level of infection was associated with a scarcity of mosquitoes. The IB (epidemic) strain of VEE virus was isolated from two pools of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis (Theo.) and the blood of one symptomatic equine. The low mosquito population, the relatively few equine cases observed, and the absence of reports of VEE human disease from the outbreak area suggested VEE virus persistence through a low-level mosquito-equine transmission cycle. Other studies have already indicated that wild vertebrates play no more than a minor role in outbreaks of epidemic VEE. Mosquito collections made in areas of the states of Durango, Chihuahua, and Tamaulipas, where considerable epidemic activity of VEE had occurred in 1971, failed to reveal evidence of VEE virus persistence. Twenty-nine ioslations of other arboviruses were also made in these studies: including 22 of St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLE), 2 of Flanders virus, 1 of Turlock virus, 1 of Trivittatus virus of the California Group, 1 of western equine encephalitis virus (VEE), and 2 (from Santa Rose) which possibly represent a hitherto unknown virus in the Bunyamwera Group. These are the first reports of SLE virus isolations from mosquitoes in Mexico, and the first demonstration of Trivittatus, VEE Turlock and Flanders viruses in Mexico from any source.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0002-9262	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:235213			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2706
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	Author	Romano, N.; Vitale, F.; Alesi, D.R.; Bonura, F.; La Licata, R.; Intonazzo, V.; Dardanoni, G.; Mammina, C.
	Title	The changing pattern of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in intravenous drug users. Results of a six-year seroprevalence study in Palermo, Italy			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1992	Publication	American Journal of Epidemiology	Abbreviated Journal	Am J Epidemiol
	Volume	135	Issue	11	Pages	1189-1196
	Keywords	Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/epidemiology; Adolescent; Adult; Chi-Square Distribution; Cross-Sectional Studies; Female; HIV Antibodies/blood; HIV Infections/epidemiology; HIV Seroprevalence/trends; Hiv-1; Hepatitis B Antibodies/blood; Hepatitis B Surface Antigens/blood; Heroin; Humans; Incidence; Italy/epidemiology; Logistic Models; Male; Multivariate Analysis; Odds Ratio; Prevalence; Risk Factors; Substance Abuse, Intravenous/*epidemiology; Time Factors
	Abstract	A cross-sectional seroepidemiologic study was carried out between 1985 and 1990 in 1,567 heterosexual intravenous drug users who had been seen at the AIDS Regional Reference Center in Palermo, Italy, to evaluate the rate of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) seroprevalence in this group and its long-term trend. Sixty serum samples collected from drug users in 1980 and 1983, before the founding of the Center (1985), were tested as well. Some demographic and behavioral risk factors were studied in a subgroup of intravenous drug users enrolled in 1985, 1987, and 1990 for their possible association with HIV-1. These factors were also studied in relation to hepatitis B virus infection, since both viruses share the same modes of spread. These drug users had a higher prevalence of markers for hepatitis B virus than of HIV-1 antibodies, and the prevalence rates in sera collected declined over time for both infections. The presence of both antibodies to HIV-1 and markers for hepatitis B virus was independently associated with the age of the drug user, the duration of drug use, and the year of serum collection. Antibodies to HIV-1 were observed more frequently in females than in males. No relation was found between education or employment status and the presence of HIV-1 antibodies or hepatitis B virus markers. Although new HIV-1 infections still occur, the decline in seroprevalence observed at the end of the 1980s might be related to modifications in social behavior among newer drug users, partial exhaustion of the susceptible population, and increasing risk awareness in more experienced users.
	Address	Giuseppe D'Alessandro Department of Hygiene and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Palermo, Italy
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0002-9262	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:1626537			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5258
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Spagnoletti, N.; Visalberghi, E.; Verderane, M.P.; Ottoni, E.; Izar, P.; Fragaszy, D.
	Title	Stone tool use in wild bearded capuchin monkeys, Cebus libidinosus. Is it a strategy to overcome food scarcity?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2012	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	83	Issue	5	Pages	1285-1294
	Keywords	bearded capuchin; Cebus libidinosus; fallback food; necessity hypothesis; nut cracking; opportunity hypothesis; tool use
	Abstract	To determine whether tool use varied in relation to food availability in bearded capuchin monkeys, we recorded anvil and stone hammer use in two sympatric wild groups, one of which was provisioned daily, and assessed climatic variables and availability of fruits, invertebrates and palm nuts. Capuchins used tools to crack open encased fruits, mostly palm nuts, throughout the year. Significant differences between wet and dry seasons were found in rainfall, abundance of invertebrates and palm nuts, but not in fruit abundance. Catulè nuts were more abundant in the dry season. We tested the predictions of the necessity hypothesis (according to which tool use is maintained by sustenance needs during resource scarcity) and of the opportunity hypothesis (according to which tool use is maintained by repeated exposure to appropriate ecological conditions, such as preferred food resources necessitating the use of tools). Our findings support only the opportunity hypothesis. The rate of tool use was not affected by provisioning, and the monthly rate of tool use was not correlated with the availability of fruits and invertebrates. Conversely, all capuchins cracked food items other than palm nuts (e.g. cashew nuts) when available, and adult males cracked nuts more in the dry season when catulè nuts (the most common and exploited nut) are especially abundant. Hence, in our field site capuchins use tools opportunistically.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5855
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	Author	Gruber, T.; Clay, Z.; Zuberbühler, K.
	Title	A comparison of bonobo and chimpanzee tool use: evidence for a female bias in the Pan lineage			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2010	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	80	Issue	6	Pages	1023-1033
	Keywords	culture; great ape; neoteny; Pan; primate evolution; sex difference; tool use
	Abstract	Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, are the most sophisticated tool-users among all nonhuman primates. From an evolutionary perspective, it is therefore puzzling that the tool use behaviour of their closest living primate relative, the bonobo, Pan paniscus, has been described as particularly poor. However, only a small number of bonobo groups have been studied in the wild and only over comparably short periods. Here, we show that captive bonobos and chimpanzees are equally diverse tool-users in most contexts. Our observations illustrate that tool use in bonobos can be highly complex and no different from what has been described for chimpanzees. The only major difference in the chimpanzee and bonobo data was that bonobos of all age–sex classes used tools in a play context, a possible manifestation of their neotenous nature. We also found that female bonobos displayed a larger range of tool use behaviours than males, a pattern previously described for chimpanzees but not for other great apes. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that the female-biased tool use evolved prior to the split between bonobos and chimpanzees.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5856
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Lonsdorf, E.V.; Ross, S.R.; Linick, S.A.; Milstein, M.S.; Melber, T.N.
	Title	An experimental, comparative investigation of tool use in chimpanzees and gorillas			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2009	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	77	Issue	5	Pages	1119-1126
	Keywords	chimpanzee; gorilla; Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Pan troglodytes; social structure; tool use
	Abstract	Studies of ape tool use have been conducted in captivity since the early 1900s and in the wild since the 1960s. Chimpanzees are the most prolific tool users among the apes, and are known to use more tools than any other nonhuman animal. In contrast, reports of gorilla tool use are rare both in wild and captive settings. Studies of the processes involved in tool use learning have been limited in the wild by the lack of ability to control several unpredictable variables, and in captivity by tool use opportunities that are often presented in non-naturalistic contexts. We attempted to address both of these limitations by providing naïve subjects with a naturalistic tool use device (built to simulate a termite mound) while housed in a more natural social setting to approximate how learning would occur in the wild. Both gorillas and chimpanzees participated in the experiment to allow comparative analyses of acquisition of tool behaviour and the factors that may affect acquisition. Both species showed low frequencies of interaction with the mound in the baseline condition, before baiting with a food reward. Once baited, chimpanzees both attempted and succeeded to extract the reward more quickly than did gorillas. The number of social group members at the mound was significantly higher for chimpanzees than for gorillas and may have affected skill acquisition. We advocate that comparative approaches to skill acquisition and learning are valuable, but that researchers need to be cognizant of species differences in social structure that may affect results.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5858
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	Author	Amant, R. St.; Horton, T.E.
	Title	Revisiting the definition of animal tool use			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	75	Issue	4	Pages	1199-1208
	Keywords	cognition; tool use
	Abstract	Benjamin Beck's definition of tool use has served the field of animal cognition well for over 25 years (Beck 1980, Animal Tool Behavior: the Use and Manufacture of Tools, New York, Garland STPM). This article proposes a new, more explanatory definition that accounts for tool use in terms of two complementary subcategories of behaviours: behaviours aimed at altering a target object by mechanical means and behaviours that mediate the flow of information between the tool user and the environment or other organisms in the environment. The conceptual foundation and implications of the new definition are contrasted with those of existing definitions, particularly Beck's. The new definition is informally evaluated with respect to a set of scenarios that highlights differences from Beck's definition as well as those of others in the literature.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5861
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	Author	White, A.M.; Swaisgood, R.R.; Czekala, N.
	Title	Ranging patterns in white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum simum: implications for mating strategies			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	74	Issue	2	Pages	349-356
	Keywords	Ceratotherium simum simum; foraging; habitat choice; home range use; mate choice; mating systems; ranging pattern; resource distribution; white rhinoceros
	Abstract	How animals use space has important consequences for feeding ecology, social organization, mating strategies and conservation management. In white rhinoceros, female home ranges are much larger than male territories, suggesting that movement patterns are influenced by factors other than resource distribution. In this study we placed radiotransmitters on 15 female white rhinoceros, recording 1758 locations and collecting behavioural data during 1671 observation sessions, making this the largest data set of its kind in this species. We investigated how habitat variables and male territories influenced female movement and reproductive behaviour. Female home ranges were approximately 20 km2 and core areas were 5 km2, with male territories roughly the same size as female core areas. Female range size did not vary with season, but the pattern of space use did vary. Females used grassland habitat preferentially, utilizing these areas significantly more than expected based on availability. Findings relevant to the mating strategy include: (1) the amount of grassland in a male's territory predicted female use of the territory; (2) the time that a female spent in a male's territory was a significant predictor of reproductive activity with the male, indicating that females probably mate with the most familiar male; and (3) the temporal pattern of female space use suggests that females did not increase mate sampling behaviour nor did they become more choosy about which males they visited when reproductively active. These findings suggest that males may maximize reproductive success by defending areas containing more grassland habitat.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	6146
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