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	Author	Santos, L.R.; Pearson, H.M.; Spaepen, G.M.; Tsao, F.; Hauser, M.D.
	Title	Probing the limits of tool competence: experiments with two non-tool-using species (Cercopithecus aethiops and Saguinus oedipus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	2	Pages	94-109
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Cercopithecus aethiops; Cognition; Female; Intelligence; Male; Motor Skills; *Problem Solving; Saguinus; Species Specificity
	Abstract	Non-human animals vary in their ability to make and use tools. The goal of the present study was to further explore what, if anything, differs between tool-users and non-tool-users, and whether these differences lie in the conceptual or motor domain. We tested two species that typically do not use tools-cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)-on problems that mirrored those designed for prolific tool users such as chimpanzees. We trained subjects on a task in which they could choose one of two canes to obtain an out-of-reach food reward. After training, subjects received several variations on the original task, each designed to examine a specific conceptual aspect of the pulling problem previously studied in other tool-using species. Both species recognized that effective pulling tools must be made of rigid materials. Subsequent conditions revealed significant species differences, with vervets outperforming tamarins across many conditions. Vervets, but not tamarins, had some recognition of the relationship between a tool's orientation and the position of the food reward, the relationship between a tool's trajectory and the substance that it moves on, and that tools must be connected in order to work properly. These results provide further evidence that tool-use may derive from domain-general, rather than domain-specific cognitive capacities that evolved for tool use per se.
	Address	Department of Psychology, Yale University, Box 208205, New Haven, CT, USA. laurie.santos@yale.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16341524			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2478
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	Author	Ducoing, A.M.; Thierry, B.
	Title	Tool-use learning in Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	2	Pages	103-113
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Imitative Behavior; Intelligence; Macaca/psychology; Male; *Motor Skills
	Abstract	The transmission of tool use is a rare event in monkeys. Such an event arose in a group of semi-free-ranging Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) in which leaning a pole against the park's fence (branch leaning) appeared and spread to several males. This prompted us to test individual and social learning of this behavior in seven young males. In the first experiment, three males learned individually to obtain a food reward using a wooden pole as a climbing tool. They began using the pole to retrieve the reward only when they could alternatively experience acting on the object and reaching the target. In a second experiment, we first tested whether four other subjects could learn branch leaning after having observed a group-mate performing the task. Despite repeated opportunities to observe the demonstrator, they did not learn to use the pole as a tool. Hence we exposed the latter subjects to individual learning trials and they succeeded in the task. Tool use was not transmitted in the experimental situation, which contrasts with observations in the park. We can conclude that the subjects were not able to recognize the target as such. It is possible that they recognized it and learned the task individually when we alternated the opportunity to act upon the object and to reach the reward. This suggests that these macaques could then have associated the action they exercised upon the pole and the use of the pole as a means to reach the reward.
	Address	Centre d'Ecologie et Physiologie Energetiques, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 7 rue de l'Universite, 67000, Strasbourg, France
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15449102			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2508
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	Author	Borsari, A.; Ottoni, E.B.
	Title	Preliminary observations of tool use in captive hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	1	Pages	48-52
	Keywords	Age Factors; Animals; Feeding Behavior; Female; Intelligence; Male; Motor Skills; Nuts; *Parrots
	Abstract	Many animals use tools (detached objects applied to another object to produce an alteration in shape, position, or structure) in foraging, for instance, to access encapsulated food. Descriptions of tool use by hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) are scarce and brief. In order to describe one case of such behavior, six captive birds were observed while feeding. Differences in nut manipulation and opening proficiency between adults and juveniles were recorded. The tools may be serving as a wedge, preventing the nut from slipping and/or rotating, reducing the impact of opening, or providing mechanical aid in its positioning and/or use of force. Data suggest that birds of this species have an innate tendency to use objects (tools) as aids during nut manipulation and opening.
	Address	Laboratory of Cognitive Ethology, Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil. borsari@hotmail.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15248094			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2518
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	Author	Pepperberg, I.M.
	Title	The value of the Piagetian framework for comparative cognitive studies			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	3	Pages	177-182
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Discrimination Learning; Intelligence; Models, Psychological; *Models, Theoretical
	Abstract	Although the Piagetian framework has been used by numerous researchers to compare cognitive abilities of diverse species, the system is often criticized as implemented. I examine the various criticisms, suggest ways in which the system can be improved, and argue for the need for descriptive systems such as the Piagetian framework to complement programs that look for cellular and molecular bases or mathematical models to explain behavior.
	Address	School of Architecture and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. impepper@media.mit.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12357290			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2595
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	Author	Bshary, R.; Wickler, W.; Fricke, H.
	Title	Fish cognition: a primate's eye view			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	1	Pages	1-13
	Keywords	Animals; Cognition/physiology; Evolution; Fishes/physiology; Intelligence; Learning; Primates/*physiology; Social Behavior
	Abstract	We provide selected examples from the fish literature of phenomena found in fish that are currently being examined in discussions of cognitive abilities and evolution of neocortex size in primates. In the context of social intelligence, we looked at living in individualized groups and corresponding social strategies, social learning and tradition, and co-operative hunting. Regarding environmental intelligence, we searched for examples concerning special foraging skills, tool use, cognitive maps, memory, anti-predator behaviour, and the manipulation of the environment. Most phenomena of interest for primatologists are found in fish as well. We therefore conclude that more detailed studies on decision rules and mechanisms are necessary to test for differences between the cognitive abilities of primates and other taxa. Cognitive research can benefit from future fish studies in three ways: first, as fish are highly variable in their ecology, they can be used to determine the specific ecological factors that select for the evolution of specific cognitive abilities. Second, for the same reason they can be used to investigate the link between cognitive abilities and the enlargement of specific brain areas. Third, decision rules used by fish could be used as 'null-hypotheses' for primatologists looking at how monkeys might make their decisions. Finally, we propose a variety of fish species that we think are most promising as study objects.
	Address	University of Cambridge, Department of Zoology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK. rb286@cam.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11957395			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2617
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	Author	Wasserman, E.A.
	Title	The science of animal cognition: past, present, and future			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1997	Publication	Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process
	Volume	23	Issue	2	Pages	123-135
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animal Population Groups/psychology; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Behavioral Sciences/trends; *Cognition; Evolution; Forecasting; Humans; Intelligence
	Abstract	The field of animal cognition is strongly rooted in the philosophy of mind and in the theory of evolution. Despite these strong roots, work during the most famous and active period in the history of our science-the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s-may have diverted us from the very questions that were of greatest initial interest to the comparative analysis of learning and behavior. Subsequently, the field has been in steady decline despite its increasing breadth and sophistication. Renewal of the field of animal cognition may require a return to the original questions of animal communication and intelligence using the most advanced tools of modern psychological science. Reclaiming center stage in contemporary psychology will be difficult; planning that effort with a host of strategies should enhance the chances of success.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City 52242-1407, USA. ed-wasserman@uiowa.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0097-7403	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:9095537			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2779
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	Author	Van Schaik, C.
	Title	Why are some animals so smart?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Scientific American	Abbreviated Journal	Sci Am
	Volume	294	Issue	4	Pages	64-71
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Conditioning (Psychology); Culture; Environment; Equipment and Supplies; Evolution; Indonesia; Intelligence; Learning; Pongo pygmaeus/*physiology; Social Behavior
	Abstract
	Address	Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zurich, Switzerland
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0036-8733	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16596881			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2830
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	Author	McLean, A.N.
	Title	Cognitive abilities -- the result of selective pressures on food acquisition?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	71	Issue	3	Pages	241-258
	Keywords	Adaptive intelligence; Animal cognition; Darwinian selection; Insightful learning
	Abstract	Locating and capturing food are suggested as significant selection pressures for the evolution of various cognitive abilities in mammals and birds. The hypothesis is proposed that aspects of food procuring behaviour should be strongly indicative of particular cognitive abilities. Experimental data concerning higher mental abilities in mammals and birds are reviewed. These data deal with self-recognition studies, rule-learning experiments, number concept, deceptive abilities, tool-use and observational learning. A Darwinian approach reveals: (1) the adaptiveness of particular abilities for particular niches, (2) that in complex foraging environments, increases in foraging efficiencies in animals should result from the evolution of particular cognitive abilities, (3) that phenomena such as convergent mental evolution should be expected to have taken place across taxonomic groups for species exploiting similar niches, (4) that divergence in mental ability should also have taken place where related species have exploited dissimilar niches. Experimental data of higher mental abilities in animals concur with a Darwinian explanation for the distribution of these cognitive abilities and no anomalies have been found. There are, as a consequence, significant implications for the welfare of animals subject to training when training methodology gives little or no consideration to the various mental abilities of species.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2907
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	Author	Heinrich, B.; Bugnyar, T.
	Title	Just how smart are ravens?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Scientific American	Abbreviated Journal	Sci Am
	Volume	296	Issue	4	Pages	64-71
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Crows/physiology; Environment; *Intelligence; Predatory Behavior; Problem Solving; Thinking
	Abstract
	Address	University of Vermont, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0036-8733	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17479632			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4101
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	Author	Straub, A.
	Title	An intelligent crow beats a lab			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Science (New York, N.Y.)	Abbreviated Journal	Science
	Volume	316	Issue	5825	Pages	688
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; *Crows; Dogs; Intelligence; Memory
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1095-9203	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17478698			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4102
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