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	Author	Whiten, A.
	Title	The second inheritance system of chimpanzees and humans			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Nature	Abbreviated Journal	Nature
	Volume	437	Issue	7055	Pages	52-55
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild/physiology/psychology; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Culture; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology/psychology; *Social Behavior; Technology
	Abstract	Half a century of dedicated field research has brought us from ignorance of our closest relatives to the discovery that chimpanzee communities resemble human cultures in possessing suites of local traditions that uniquely identify them. The collaborative effort required to establish this picture parallels the one set up to sequence the chimpanzee genome, and has revealed a complex social inheritance system that complements the genetic picture we are now developing.
	Address	Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, and Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, UK. a.whiten@st-and.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1476-4687	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16136127			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	730
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Horner, V.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	3	Pages	164-181
	Keywords	Animals; Child Behavior; Child, Preschool; Concept Formation; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; Pan troglodytes; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance; *Social Environment; Species Specificity
	Abstract	This study explored whether the tendency of chimpanzees and children to use emulation or imitation to solve a tool-using task was a response to the availability of causal information. Young wild-born chimpanzees from an African sanctuary and 3- to 4-year-old children observed a human demonstrator use a tool to retrieve a reward from a puzzle-box. The demonstration involved both causally relevant and irrelevant actions, and the box was presented in each of two conditions: opaque and clear. In the opaque condition, causal information about the effect of the tool inside the box was not available, and hence it was impossible to differentiate between the relevant and irrelevant parts of the demonstration. However, in the clear condition causal information was available, and subjects could potentially determine which actions were necessary. When chimpanzees were presented with the opaque box, they reproduced both the relevant and irrelevant actions, thus imitating the overall structure of the task. When the box was presented in the clear condition they instead ignored the irrelevant actions in favour of a more efficient, emulative technique. These results suggest that emulation is the favoured strategy of chimpanzees when sufficient causal information is available. However, if such information is not available, chimpanzees are prone to employ a more comprehensive copy of an observed action. In contrast to the chimpanzees, children employed imitation to solve the task in both conditions, at the expense of efficiency. We suggest that the difference in performance of chimpanzees and children may be due to a greater susceptibility of children to cultural conventions, perhaps combined with a differential focus on the results, actions and goals of the demonstrator.
	Address	Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9JU, UK. vkh1@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15549502			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	732
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Stoinski, T.S.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Social learning by orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) in a simulated food-processing task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	117	Issue	3	Pages	272-282
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Feeding Behavior; Female; Imitative Behavior; Male; Pongo pygmaeus/psychology; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance; Social Environment; Species Specificity; *Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	Increasing evidence for behavioral differences between populations of primates has created a resurgence of interest in examining mechanisms of information transfer between individuals. The authors examined the social transmission of information in 15 captive orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) using a simulated food-processing task. Experimental subjects were shown 1 of 2 methods for removing a suite of defenses on an “artificial fruit.” Control subjects were given no prior exposure before interacting with the fruit. Observing a model provided a functional advantage in the task, as significantly more experimental than control subjects opened the fruit. Within the experimental groups, the authors found a trend toward differences in the actual behaviors used to remove 1 of the defenses. Results support observations from the wild implying horizontal transfer of information in orangutans and show that a number of social learning processes are likely to be involved in the transfer of knowledge in this species.
	Address	Department of Primate Research, Zoo Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30315, USA. tstoinski@zooatlanta.org
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14498803			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	737
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	Author	Stoinski, T.S.; Wrate, J.L.; Ure, N.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Imitative learning by captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a simulated food-processing task			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	115	Issue	3	Pages	272-281
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Discrimination Learning; Feeding Behavior/physiology; Gorilla gorilla; *Imitative Behavior; Social Behavior
	Abstract	Although field studies have suggested the existence of cultural transmission of foraging techniques in primates, identification of transmission mechanisms has remained elusive. To test experimentally for evidence of imitation in the current study, we exposed gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to an artificial fruit foraging task designed by A. Whiten and D. M. Custance (1996). Gorillas (n=6) watched a human model remove a series of 3 defenses around a fruit. Each of the defenses was removed using 1 of 2 alternative techniques. Subsequent video analysis of gorillas' behavior showed a significant tendency to copy the observed technique on 1 of the individual defenses and the direction of removal on another defense. This is the first statistically reliable evidence of imitation in gorillas. Sequence of defense removal was not replicated. The gorillas' responses were most similar to those of chimpanzees.
	Address	TECHlab, Zoo Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA. stoinskit@mindspring.com
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11594496			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	738
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Whiten, A.
	Title	Imitation of the sequential structure of actions by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1998	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	112	Issue	3	Pages	270-281
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior/physiology; Ceremonial Behavior; Exploratory Behavior/physiology; Female; Fruit; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Learning/physiology; Male; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Practice (Psychology); Problem Solving/*physiology
	Abstract	Imitation was studied experimentally by allowing chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to observe alternative patterns of actions for opening a specially designed “artificial fruit.” Like problematic foods primates deal with naturally, with the test fruit several defenses had to be removed to gain access to an edible core, but the sequential order and method of defense removal could be systematically varied. Each subject repeatedly observed 1 of 2 alternative techniques for removing each defense and 1 of 2 alternative sequential patterns of defense removal. Imitation of sequential organization emerged after repeated cycles of demonstration and attempts at opening the fruit. Imitation in chimpanzees may thus have some power to produce cultural convergence, counter to the supposition that individual learning processes corrupt copied actions. Imitation of sequential organization was accompanied by imitation of some aspects of the techniques that made up the sequence.
	Address	Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. a.whiten@st-andrews.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:9770315			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	743
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	Author	Bard, K.A.
	Title	Neonatal imitation in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) tested with two paradigms			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	10	Issue	2	Pages	233-242
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Animals, Newborn; Imitative Behavior/physiology; Pan troglodytes/physiology/*psychology; Problem Solving/physiology
	Abstract	Primate species differ in their imitative performance, perhaps reflecting differences in imitative capacity. The developmentally earliest form of imitation in humans, neonatal imitation, occurs in early interactions with social partners, and may be a more accurate index of innate capacity than imitation of actions on objects, which requires more cognitive ability. This study assessed imitative capacity in five neonatal chimpanzees, within a narrow age range (7-15 days of age), by testing responses to facial and vocal actions with two different test paradigms (structured and communicative). Imitation of mouth opening was found in both paradigms. In the communicative paradigm, significant agreement was found between infant actions and demonstrations. Additionally, chimpanzees matched the sequence of three actions of the TC model, but only on the second demonstration. Newborn chimpanzees matched more modeled actions in the communicative test than in the structured paradigm. These performances of chimpanzees, at birth, are in agreement with the literature, supporting a conclusion that imitative capacity is not unique to the human species. Developmental histories must be more fully considered in the cross-species study of imitation, as there is a greater degree of innate imitative capacity than previously known. Socialization practices interact with innate and developing competencies to determine the outcome of imitation tests later in life.
	Address	Centre for the Study of Emotion, Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry Building, Portsmouth, PO1 2DY, UK. kim.bard@port.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17180698			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2427
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	Author	Lonsdorf, E.V.
	Title	What is the role of mothers in the acquisition of termite-fishing behaviors in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	1	Pages	36-46
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild; Behavior, Animal; Cooking and Eating Utensils; Feeding Behavior/psychology; Female; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Mothers/psychology; Motor Skills; Pan troglodytes/*psychology; Problem Solving
	Abstract	This paper explores the role of maternal influences on the acquisition of a tool-using task in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in order to build on and complement previous work done in captivity. Young chimpanzees show a long period of offspring dependency on mothers and it is during this period that offspring learn several important skills, especially how to and on what to forage. At Gombe National Park, one skill that is acquired during dependency is termite-fishing, a complex behavior that involves inserting a tool made from the surrounding vegetation into a termite mound and extracting the termites that attack and cling to the tool. All chimpanzees observed at Gombe have acquired the termite-fishing skill by the age of 5.5 years. Since the mother is the primary source of information throughout this time period, I investigated the influence of mothers' individual termite-fishing characteristics on their offsprings' speed of acquisition and proficiency at the skill once acquired. Mother's time spent alone or with maternal family members, which is highly correlated to time spent termite-fishing, was positively correlated to offspring's acquisition of critical elements of the skill. I also investigated the specific types of social interactions that occur between mothers and offspring at the termite mound and found that mothers are highly tolerant to offspring, even when the behavior of the offspring may disrupt the termite-fishing attempt. However, no active facilitation by mothers of offsprings' attempts were observed.
	Address	Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA. elonsdorf@lpzoo.org
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16195914			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2480
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	Author	Call, J.; Carpenter, M.; Tomasello, M.
	Title	Copying results and copying actions in the process of social learning: chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	3	Pages	151-163
	Keywords	Animals; Child Behavior; Child, Preschool; Concept Formation; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; Pan troglodytes; Problem Solving; Psychomotor Performance; Random Allocation; *Social Environment; Species Specificity
	Abstract	There is currently much debate about the nature of social learning in chimpanzees. The main question is whether they can copy others' actions, as opposed to reproducing the environmental effects of these actions using their own preexisting behavioral strategies. In the current study, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and human children (Homo sapiens) were shown different demonstrations of how to open a tube-in both cases by a conspecific. In different experimental conditions, demonstrations consisted of (1) action only (the actions necessary to open the tube without actually opening it); (2) end state only (the open tube, without showing any actions); (3) both of these components (in a full demonstration); or (4) neither of these components (in a baseline condition). In the first three conditions subjects saw one of two different ways that the tube could open (break in middle; caps off ends). Subjects' behavior in each condition was assessed for how often they opened the tube, how often they opened it in the same location as the demonstrator, and how often they copied the demonstrator's actions or style of opening the tube. Whereas chimpanzees reproduced mainly the environmental results of the demonstrations (emulation), human children often reproduced the demonstrator's actions (imitation). Because the procedure used was similar in many ways to the procedure that Meltzoff (Dev Psych 31:1, 1995) used to study the understanding of others' unfulfilled intentions, the implications of these findings with regard to chimpanzees' understanding of others' intentions are also discussed.
	Address	Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany. call@eva.mpg.de
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15490290			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2504
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	Author	Mercado, E. 3rd; Herman, L.M.; Pack, A.A.
	Title	Song copying by humpback whales: themes and variations			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	2	Pages	93-102
	Keywords	Acoustics; Animals; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Male; Sound Spectrography; Vocalization, Animal; Whales/psychology
	Abstract	Male humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) produce long, structured sequences of sound underwater, commonly called “songs.” Humpbacks progressively modify their songs over time in ways that suggest that individuals are copying song elements that they hear being used by other singers. Little is known about the factors that determine how whales learn from their auditory experiences. Song learning in birds is better understood and appears to be constrained by stable core attributes such as species-specific sound repertoires and song syntax. To clarify whether similar constraints exist for song learning by humpbacks, we analyzed changes over 14 years in the sounds used by humpback whales singing in Hawaiian waters. We found that although the properties of individual sounds within songs are quite variable over time, the overall distribution of certain acoustic features within the repertoire appears to be stable. In particular, our findings suggest that species-specific constraints on temporal features of song sounds determine song form, whereas spectral variability allows whales to flexibly adapt song elements.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, SUNY, Park Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA. emiii@buffalo.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15490289			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2505
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	Author	Ducoing, A.M.; Thierry, B.
	Title	Tool-use learning in Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana)			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2005	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	8	Issue	2	Pages	103-113
	Keywords	Animals; Association Learning; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Imitative Behavior; Intelligence; Macaca/psychology; Male; *Motor Skills
	Abstract	The transmission of tool use is a rare event in monkeys. Such an event arose in a group of semi-free-ranging Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) in which leaning a pole against the park's fence (branch leaning) appeared and spread to several males. This prompted us to test individual and social learning of this behavior in seven young males. In the first experiment, three males learned individually to obtain a food reward using a wooden pole as a climbing tool. They began using the pole to retrieve the reward only when they could alternatively experience acting on the object and reaching the target. In a second experiment, we first tested whether four other subjects could learn branch leaning after having observed a group-mate performing the task. Despite repeated opportunities to observe the demonstrator, they did not learn to use the pole as a tool. Hence we exposed the latter subjects to individual learning trials and they succeeded in the task. Tool use was not transmitted in the experimental situation, which contrasts with observations in the park. We can conclude that the subjects were not able to recognize the target as such. It is possible that they recognized it and learned the task individually when we alternated the opportunity to act upon the object and to reach the reward. This suggests that these macaques could then have associated the action they exercised upon the pole and the use of the pole as a means to reach the reward.
	Address	Centre d'Ecologie et Physiologie Energetiques, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 7 rue de l'Universite, 67000, Strasbourg, France
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15449102			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2508
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