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McAfee L.M.; Mills D.S.; Cooper J.J. |
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Title |
The use of mirrors for the control of stereotypic weaving behaviour in the stabled horse |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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159-173 |
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Horse; Housing; Mirror; Stereotypy; Weaving |
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Weaving, a common locomotor stereotypy, has been associated with social isolation in stabled horses. In this study we investigated the effect of provision of mirrors on weaving as this may have a similar effect to access to conspecifics. The behaviour of six known weavers, each in one of three locations within a working equine yard, was recorded, 5 days a week for 12 weeks. After a pre-trial period of a week, one horse in each of the three locations was provided with a 1mx1.5m mirror for 5 weeks, after which time the mirrors were removed and placed in the stables of the other three subjects for the next 5 weeks. All mirrors were then removed and the horses observed for a final week (post-trial period). The provision of a mirror significantly reduced the incidence of both stereotypic weaving (P<0.001) and nodding (P<0.05) for the 5 weeks of treatment but did not affect the time the horses spent standing active, dozing or ingesting. The mirror may mimic visual contact with conspecifics (minimising the social isolation of the stable) and/or provide environmental distraction or additional visual stimuli, altering the horses' perception of the environment and their resultant responses to it. The use of mirrors in the stable appears to be a more effective treatment of weaving than many current popular treatments, including weaving bars. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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2010 |
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Søndergaard, E.; Jensen, M.B.; Nicol, C.J. |
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Title |
Motivation for social contact in horses measured by operant conditioning |
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Journal Article |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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In Press, Corrected Proof |
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Horse; Housing; Social behaviour; Operant conditioning; Motivation |
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Although horses are social animals they are often housed individually with limited social contact to other horses and this may compromise their welfare. The present study included eight young female horses and investigated the strength of motivation for access to full social contact, head contact and muzzle contact, respectively, to a familiar companion horse. Horses were housed individually next to their companion horse and separations between pens prevented physical contact. During daily test sessions horses were brought to a test area where they could access an arena allowing social contact. Arena access during 3 min was given after completion of a predetermined number of responses on a panel. Fixed ratios (FR) of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 responses per arena access were applied in a random order, one per daily test session, within each test week (Monday to Friday), and the number of rewards per daily test session was recorded. All horses could access all three types of social contact in a cross-over design, and an empty arena was used as control. Motivational strength was assessed using elasticity of demand functions, which were estimated based on the number of rewards earned and FR. Elasticities of demand for the three types of social contact were low (-0.20), and not significantly different, although increasing FR still resulted in a decrease in rewards obtained for all three types of social contact (P < 0.001). Across FR-levels horses earned more rewards for social contact than for an empty arena, as shown by much higher intercept values (2.51 vs. 0.99; P < 0.001). However, the elasticity of demand for infrequent access to an empty arena (-0.08) was lower than for social contact (P < 0.01) and not significantly different from zero (P = 0.07). Horses performed more social behaviour the lesser the restriction on social contact (full > head > muzzle). However, the finding that horses showed a similar and high motivation for all three types of social contact suggests that they are valued equally highly in a situation where the alternative is no social contact. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5388 |
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Søndergaard, E.; Jensen, M.B.; Nicol, C.J. |
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Title |
Motivation for social contact in horses measured by operant conditioning |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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Volume |
132 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
131-137 |
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Keywords |
Horse; Housing; Social behaviour; Operant conditioning; Motivation |
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Although horses are social animals they are often housed individually with limited social contact to other horses and this may compromise their welfare. The present study included eight young female horses and investigated the strength of motivation for access to full social contact, head contact and muzzle contact, respectively, to a familiar companion horse. Horses were housed individually next to their companion horse and separations between pens prevented physical contact. During daily test sessions horses were brought to a test area where they could access an arena allowing social contact. Arena access during 3 min was given after completion of a predetermined number of responses on a panel. Fixed ratios (FR) of 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 responses per arena access were applied in a random order, one per daily test session, within each test week (Monday to Friday), and the number of rewards per daily test session was recorded. All horses could access all three types of social contact in a cross-over design, and an empty arena was used as control. Motivational strength was assessed using elasticity of demand functions, which were estimated based on the number of rewards earned and FR. Elasticities of demand for the three types of social contact were low (-0.20), and not significantly different, although increasing FR still resulted in a decrease in rewards obtained for all three types of social contact (P < 0.001). Across FR-levels horses earned more rewards for social contact than for an empty arena, as shown by much higher intercept values (2.51 vs. 0.99; P < 0.001). However, the elasticity of demand for infrequent access to an empty arena (-0.08) was lower than for social contact (P < 0.01) and not significantly different from zero (P = 0.07). Horses performed more social behaviour the lesser the restriction on social contact (full > head > muzzle). However, the finding that horses showed a similar and high motivation for all three types of social contact suggests that they are valued equally highly in a situation where the alternative is no social contact. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5410 |
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Flannigan, G.; Stookey, J.M. |
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Day-time time budgets of pregnant mares housed in tie stalls: a comparison of draft versus light mares |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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125-143 |
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Horse; Time budget; Stereotypies; Housing |
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Day-time (08.30-05.30 h) time budgets were generated from 55 light and 55 draft late pregnancy mares housed in tie stalls from ten pregnant mares' urine (PMU) farms using continuous video recording. Equal numbers of light and draft mares were filmed on each farm during the months of February and early March. The actions recorded included eating, drinking, resting (standing and recumbent), standing active, and interactions between horses (aggressive and non-aggressive). In addition, the presence and duration of stereotypic behaviours such as cribbing, head bobbing, weaving, and wood/bar chewing were recorded. Light mares spent significantly more time feeding and significantly less time standing active and standing resting (P<0.05, Rank Sum Two Sample Test). However, the time budget of both groups fell within the range of previously published activity budgets of feral horses. Therefore, the differences noted may not be clinically relevant. Three light and two draft mares performed repetitive behaviours at a level that is considered stereotypic (at >5% of their daily time budget). There was no significant difference in the number of horses performing stereotypies between light and draft mares. When the time budgets of both light and draft mares who performed stereotypies were pooled, the activities did not differ significantly from their counterparts who did not perform stereotypies. Because of the overall low prevalence of stereotypies and the fact that time budgets were similar to free-range horses, we believe that the management practice of keeping large numbers of pregnant mares in tie stalls is rational and that the welfare of mares is sound. Furthermore, we did not see a behavioural justification for a bias in the weight class of horses used within this management system. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3637 |
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Visser, E.K.; Ellis, A.D.; Van Reenen, C.G. |
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The effect of two different housing conditions on the welfare of young horses stabled for the first time |
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Journal Article |
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2008 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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114 |
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3 |
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521-533 |
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Horse; Welfare; Stabling; Housing; HPA axis; Novel Object test |
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The effect of stabling for the first time on the behaviour and welfare of young and naïve horses has not yet been studied in detail. In this study we examined the effect of two typical housing systems on their subsequent behavioural and physiological responses upon first time stabling. Thirty-six 2-year-old Dutch warmbloods, 18 geldings and 18 mares were included in the study. Half of the horses were stabled in individual stables (10.5m2) and the other half in pair housing (48m2 for two horses). The study lasted 12 weeks. At the end of the study the physiological and temperamental responses of the horses on the different treatments was tested using a CRF challenge test (to test the HPA-axis function) and a Novel Object test (to test temperamental differences) respectively. Especially in the first week after stabling pair housed horses spent more time eating whereas individually housed horses spent more time either standing vigilant or sleeping. Stress-related behaviours like neighing, pawing, nibbling and snorting were all displayed significantly more frequently in the individually housed horses (P<0.01). At the end of the study 67% of the individually housed horses was seen performing one or more stereotypies (P<0.01). The cortisol response and ACTH response on the CRF challenge test were lower for horses in the individually housed boxes. It is suggested that this depression in socially isolated animals is caused by a desensitisation of the HPA axis in response to stress-induced elevations in ACTH and cortisol. In general there was no effect of the treatment on the reactivity of the horses during the Novel Object test. However, there were significant relations between the responses of horses in the Novel Object test and in the stable environment. It is concluded that sudden isolated stabling is stressful to young and naïve horses, resulting in a high prevalence of stereotypies and abnormal behaviours. This study also provided some support for the notion that social stress in horses may be associated with a blunted adrenocortical response to CRF challenge. The finding that responses of horses to a behavioural test are correlated with home environment behaviours suggests that individual horses exhibit consistent behavioural traits across different contexts, and opens the possibility of using behavioural tests in horses to predict more general underlying behavioural characteristics. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6630 |
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Winwright, D.; Elston, H.; Hall, C. |
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The impact of paddock design on the behaviour of the domestic horse (Equus caballus) |
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Conference Article |
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2015 |
Publication |
Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting |
Abbreviated Journal |
Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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Horses, social behaviour, management, housing, paddock |
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The design of a captive environment should facilitate the expression of the natural behavioural repertoire of the species concerned. The domestic horse (Equus caballus) is a social, herd dwelling species that is often housed in isolation from con-specifics or kept in groups in paddock enclosures. Although the latter allows for social interaction and does not restrict movement per se, it may not promote natural activity patterns or group cohesion. The aim of the current study was to assess the impact of two different paddock designs on the behaviour of a stable group of horses (n=6: 2 mares, 4 geldings).
The paddock designs tested were adjacent and grassed similarly, but configured differently. A central paddock (75 x 75m) designated NT, was surrounded by a track 1.6-5.5m wide, designated T. The horses were turned out in their group into T or NT for 3 consecutive days. Their behaviour was recorded for one hour three times each day (10.00, 13.00, 16.00 hrs). Within each observation period of one hour focal sampling was used, each individual horse being observed for a 10 minute period. They were then moved to the other enclosure type for a further 3 consecutive days, followed by a repeat of each condition. When turned out the horses were fitted with a global positioning system device (Garmin Forerunner 305) to monitor distance travelled and speed for the period 10.00-17.00 hrs. The mean percentage of time spent in each behavioural state (standing alert, standing resting, walk/trot, grazing, lying, social interaction) during the periods observed was calculated. Behaviour during social interactions was classified as either affiliative (approach, follow, friendly contacts, mutual grooming) or agonistic (approach and retreat, bite, chase, head threat).
The horses travelled significantly further in T than in NT (paired samples t-test: t (5) = 11.74, p<0.001) and moved significantly faster (Wilcoxon signed rank test: z = -2.21, p=0.03). See Table 1. When the percentage of time spent in each behavioural state in T and NT was compared some significant differences were found. A significantly higher percentage of time was spent active (walking /trotting) in T than in NT (paired samples t-test: t (5) = 5.74, p=0.002). Standing alert was only recorded in T (paired samples t-test: t (5) = 3.48, p=0.02). A significantly higher percentage of time was spent grazing in NT than in T (paired samples t-test: t (5) = -3.58, p=0.016). Significantly more social interaction occurred in T than in NT (paired samples t-test: t (5) = 5.93, p=0.002). See Figure 1. In T, 91% of social interactions were affiliative and 9% agonistic, whereas in NT 29% were affiliative and 71% agonistic. No difference was found in the percentage of time spent standing resting or lying down in T and NT.
The benefits of housing horses in groups as opposed to individually have been demonstrated in previous studies. In addition to better satisfying the behavioural needs of the horse it has been found that group housed horses adapt more easily to training and display less undesirable behaviour than those housed individually (Rivera et al. 2002; Søndergaard and Ladewig 2004; Visser et al. 2008). However, individual housing is frequently selected by horse owners in preference to group housing to avoid the risk of injury during agonistic encounters. Fureix et al. (2012) suggest that management practices may well contribute to aggressiveness in horses and that the conditions under which we keep horses should be reviewed. The findings of the present study indicate that the design of the enclosure in which groups of horses are kept affects the nature of social interactions. The T paddock design resulted in reduced intra-group aggression. However, this paddock design also reduced the time spent grazing and increased vigilant behaviour. Although the results demonstrate that a paddock system including tracks may facilitate group cohesion and more natural movement patterns, the long-term impact on behaviour and welfare requires further investigation.
References:
Fureix C, Bourjade M, Henry S, Sankey C, Hausberger M. (2012). Exploring aggression regulation in managed groups of horses (Equus caballus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 138: 216-228.
Rivera E, Benjamin S, Nielsen B, Shelle J, Zanella AJ. (2002). Behavioural and physiological response of horses to initial training: the comparison between pastured versus stalled horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 78: 235–252.
Søndergaard E, Ladewig J. (2004). Group housing exerts a positive effect on the behaviour of young horses during training. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 87: 105-118. |
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Hall, C. |
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Xenophon Publishing |
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Wald |
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; Krueger, K. |
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978-3-95625-000-2 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5895 |
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Sondergaard, E.; Ladewig, J. |
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Group housing exerts a positive effect on the behaviour of young horses during training |
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2004 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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87 |
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1-2 |
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105-118 |
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Horses; Housing; Human-animal relationship; Social environment; Training; Learning |
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In an experiment on the effects of social environment and training on the human-animal relationship, 20 horses were handled according to a defined schedule. Eight horses were housed singly and 12 horses were housed in four groups of 3 horses. Horses were handled three times per week in 10 min sessions from an age of 6 months until 2 years of age during two winter periods. A total of 50 and 70 sessions were given in the first and second period, respectively. Five randomly allocated people performed the training. The training scheme involved leading, tying up, touching, lifting feet, etc. in 43 stages. The horse had to fulfil the performance criteria of each stage in order to get to the next stage. In the first winter period, horses were led to the stable when they had “passed” a stage or after 10 min of training. In the second winter period, horses would start off at stage 1 again, and when they “passed” a stage they went on to the next stage within the same training session. Because of the change in training procedure results were analysed separately for the two winter periods. There was a significant difference between trainers in the number of times they allowed a horse to “pass” a stage within each winter period (χ32, P<0.05; χ32, P<0.001 for the first and the second winter period, respectively). Group housed horses “passed” more stages than single housed horses (17 versus 14; 27 versus 18 in the first and second winter period, respectively; P<0.05 for the interaction). Singly housed horses bit the trainer more frequently than did group housed horses (P<0.01). The responses of group housed horses to training clearly demonstrate the benefits of raising young horses in groups. |
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Rivera, E.; Benjamin, S.; Nielsen, B.; Shelle, J.; Zanella, A.J. |
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Behavioral and physiological responses of horses to initial training: the comparison between pastured versus stalled horses |
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Journal Article |
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2002 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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78 |
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2-4 |
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235-252 |
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Horses; Housing; Training; Behavior; Stress; Cortisol; Welfare |
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Horses kept in stalls are deprived of opportunities for social interactions, and the performance of natural behaviors is limited. Inadequate environmental conditions may compromise behavioral development. Initial training is a complex process and it is likely that the responses of horses may be affected by housing conditions. Sixteen 2-year-old Arabian horses were kept on pasture (P) (n=8) or in individual stalls (S) (n=8). Twelve horses (six P and six S) were subjected to a standardized training procedure, carried out by two trainers in a round pen, and 4 horses (two P and two S) were introduced to the round pen but were not trained (C; control). On sample collection day 0, 7, 21 and 28, behavior observations were carried out, blood samples were drawn and heart rates were monitored. Total training time for the stalled horses was significantly higher than total time for the pastured horses (S: 26.4+/-1.5 min; P: 19.7+/-1.1; P=0.032). The stalled group required more time to habituate to the activities occurring from the start of training to mounting (S: 11.4+/-0.96; P: 7.3+/-0.75 min; P=0.007). Frequency of unwanted behavior was higher in the stalled horses (S: 8.0+/-2.0; P: 2.2+/-1.0; P=0.020). Pastured horses tended to have higher basal heart rates on day 0 (S: 74.7+/-4.8; P: 81.8+/-5.3 bpm; P=0.0771). While the physiological data failed to identify differences between housing groups, the behavioral data suggest that pasture-kept horses adapt more easily to training than stalled horses. |
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717 |
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Lehmann, K.; Kallweit, E.; Ellendorff, F. |
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Social hierarchy in exercised and untrained group-housed horses--A brief report |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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96 |
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3-4 |
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343-347 |
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Horses; Social hierarchy; Exercise; Group-housing |
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Changes in social hierarchy were evaluated in a herd of 3-year-old Hanoverian geldings. One group (n = 5) was exposed to a training programme, the other (n = 5) remained untrained. After 6 months, the groups were reversed. Hierarchical positions were evaluated by field observations and/or paired-feeding tests at the beginning, the middle, the end of the first and at the end of the second training period. Both methods yielded identical results. Almost all horses changed position in only one direction: either up or down. Neither increase in aggression nor mutual injuries were recorded during the whole experiment. No statistically verified differences in dominance ranking occurred between trained and untrained groups, but apparent differences were consistent. Thus, if horses are kept in the same group for a longer period of time, exercise induced changes in hierarchy are probably of minor importance and are unlikely to increase the incidence of injuries. This may have implications for the promotion of group-housing for sport horses. |
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Wyss, C. |
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Does housing in a „social box“ change faecal cortisol metabolites concentration in stallions? |
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2015 |
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Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting |
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Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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housing system, stallions, social interaction, stress, faecal cortisol metabolites |
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In order to improve the housing conditions of stallions in individual boxes by offering a possibility to have more social contact, the Swiss national stud farm tested a new box system for horses, allowing increased physical contact with the neighbouring stallion. The aim of this part of the study was to investigate whether this type of housing system (named “social box”) potentially induces a change in stress reactions in stallions compared to conventional boxes. Therefore faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentration was measured as a non-invasive parameter to assess endocrine responses related to this new environment.
Four groups each consisting of eight adult Freiberger breeding stallions were included in the test design. Every stallion spent three weeks in a conventional box and in a social box respectively (cross-over design). The conventional box consisted of a separation wall with a lower opaque part and an upper part with vertical barriers (5 cm between barriers), allowing visual and olfactory contact but strongly limiting tactile contact. The separating wall of the social box consisted of two lateral sections, one part being opaque to the ceiling and the second part consisting of vertical barriers (30 cm between barriers), allowing the horse to have physical contact with its neighbour or to avoid it.
In horses, FCM concentration reflects an average level of circulating cortisol over a period of approximatively 24h. Faecal samples were collected the day following integration in social / conventional boxes, reflecting the potential stress induced by increased social interactions during the integration. In order to asses potential chronical stress, faeces samples were also collected in week one, two and three after the integration into the social / conventional box (in total: 4 samples per horse and housing system). The samples were immediately stored at -20°C until they were analysed. The samples were not analysed in the laboratory until the end of the experiment, therefore the duration of conservation in the freezer varied from 40 to 429 days.
A considerable percentage of data from groups 1 and 2 was below the detection limit (<0.8 ng/g) (Tab. 1). Thus the statistical analysis was conducted with the FCM concentration from groups 3 and 4 (n horses = 16) which contained no values below the detection limit.
Tab. 1: Details about FCM values and storage time for the 4 groups of stallions
Group Storage duration [d] Proportion of data below the detection limit (<0.8 ng/g) Mean [ng/g] Median [ng/g]
Group 1 384-429 55.6 % 2.2 0
Group 2 315-360 25.5 % 5.8 6.3
Group 3 41-79 0.0 % 8.7 8.0
Group 4 40-85 0.0 % 5.8 5.4
Despite the impressive social interactions observed between the stallions directly after being introduced into the social boxes, we did not find any differences in FCM concentration between the stallions being introduced into the conventional box and the social box on the day of integration (social box: n samples = 16, mean±SD: 6.9±4.7 ng/g; conventional box: n samples = 16, mean±SD: 9.0±11.2 ng/g; Wilcoxon signed rank test V = 70, p = 0.94).
Overall the samples taken during integration and in week one, two and three did not show evidence of changes in FCM concentration in either housing system over a longer period of time (social box: n samples = 64, mean±SD: 7.9±6.2 ng/g; conventional box: n samples = 64, mean±SD: 6.6±3.4 ng/g; Linear mixed model (LMM), p = 0.56).
Our results suggest that the possibility of having physical contact with a conspecific does not induce changes in FCM concentration in breeding stallions. The considerable percentage of values below the detection limit in groups 1 and 2 seemed to correlate with the increasing duration of storage before analysis. During the IESM Network Meeting 2015, we would like to discuss possible methodological issues and the possibilities to correctly integrate these low values in the statistical analysis. |
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Wyss, C. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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