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Author |
König v. Borstel, U.; Visser, E.K.; Hall, C. |
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Title  |
Indicators of stress in equitation |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2017 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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Volume |
190 |
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Pages |
43-56 |
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Stress; Horse; Riding; Heart rate variability; Cortisol; Behaviour |
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Abstract Stress is a generic concept describing the body's reaction to external stimuli, including both physiological and psychological factors. Therefore, by definition, the assessment of psychological stress in the exercising horse encompasses the problem of teasing apart the psychological and physiological factors both of which result in stress responses. The present study reviews the existing literature on various measures of stress taken specifically in the context of equitation science. Particular attention has been paid to short-term effects, and commonly used measurements of short-term stress include heart rate, a number of heart rate variability parameters, blood or saliva cortisol levels, eye temperature, and various behaviour parameters including in particular behaviour patterns presumably indicative of conflict with the rider's/trainer's aids. Inspection of the individual studies' results revealed that disagreement between these different measures of stress is commonplace. For physiological parameters, the largest proportion of agreement (i.e. both parameters simultaneously indicated either higher, insignificant or lower stress compared to a control treatment) was found for heart rate and heart rate variability parameters, while generally limited agreement was found for cortisol. It appears that cortisol levels may not be particularly useful for assessing/assessment of the valence of a situation in the exercising horse as cortisol levels are predominantly linked to activation and exercise levels. Although heart rate variability parameters reflect in theory more closely sympathovagal balance compared to cortisol levels, great care has to be taken regarding the use of appropriate time-frames, appropriate raw data correction methods as well as the use of appropriate equipment. In spite of its wide-spread and apparently successful use, popular equipment may in fact not be accurate enough under field conditions. Eye temperature is another promising parameter for assessment of psychological stress, but the technique is likewise susceptible to application errors. Given the high susceptibility of physiological parameters to errors at various experimental stages, behavioural rather than physiological parameters may in fact provide more accurate measures of valence when conducting experiments in the exercising horse. Behavioural parameters that appear to be particularly practical in assessing stress in ridden horses' behaviour are associated with frequencies of behaviour indicative of conflict. However, while increased frequencies of are a good indicator of stress, the absence of conflict behaviour does not provide proof of the absence of stress due to the possible occurrence of conditions such as Learned Helplessness. In future studies, the above issues should be taken into consideration when designing experiments to assess psychological stress in ridden horses. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6160 |
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Youket, R.J.; Carnevale, J.M.; Houpt, K.A.; Houpt, T.R. |
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Title |
Humoral, hormonal and behavioral correlates of feeding in ponies: the effects of meal frequency |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1985 |
Publication |
Journal of animal science |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Anim Sci. |
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61 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
1103-1110 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Blood Glucose/*analysis; Blood Proteins/*analysis; Blood Volume; *Eating; Feeding Behavior/physiology; Female; Heart Rate; Horses/blood/*physiology; Male; Osmolar Concentration; Osmotic Pressure; Triiodothyronine/*blood |
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The effect of meal frequency on body fluid, glucose, triiodothyronine (T3), heart rate and behavior was measured in 10 ponies. A simple reversal design was used in which each pony received one meal/day (1X) for 2 wk and six meals/day (6X) for 2 wk. The total intake/day was held constant. Feeding was followed by a rise in plasma levels of glucose, T3, protein and osmolality. One large meal was followed by significantly greater changes in all of the variables than was a meal one-sixth the size. Plasma T3 rose from 41 +/- 5 (SE) ng/liter before feeding to 43 +/- 5 ng/liter following a small meal, but rose significantly higher, from 39 +/- 4 to 60 +/- 10 ng/liter, following a large meal. Glucose rose from 84 +/- 3 to 109 +/- 7 mg/dl following a small meal and rose significantly higher, from 83 +/- 3 to 154 +/- 11 mg/dl, after a large meal. Plasma protein rose from 6.55 +/- .14 to 6.62 +/- .16 g/dl following a small meal and from 6.45 +/- .14 to 6.99 +/- .11 g/dl following a large meal. Osmolality rose from 227 +/- 1 mosmol/liter before to 279 +/- 1 mosmol/liter following a small meal and significantly higher from 278 +/- 2 to 285 +/- 1 mosnol/liter following a large meal. Heart rate rose from 42 beats/min in the absence of feed to 50 beats/min when food was visible to the ponies and did not rise higher when eating began. There were no significant differences in the cardiac response to one large meal and that to a small meal.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) |
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0021-8812 |
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PMID:4077755 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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51 |
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Grubb, T.L.; Foreman, J.H.; Benson, G.J.; Thurmon, J.C.; Tranquilli, W.J.; Constable, P.D.; Olson, W.O.; Davis, L.E. |
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Hemodynamic effects of calcium gluconate administered to conscious horses |
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Journal Article |
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1996 |
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Journal of veterinary internal medicine / American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine |
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J Vet Intern Med |
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10 |
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6 |
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401-404 |
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Animals; Blood Pressure/drug effects/physiology; Calcium/blood; Calcium Gluconate/administration & dosage/*pharmacology; Cardiac Output/drug effects/physiology; Consciousness/*physiology; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; Female; Heart Rate/drug effects/physiology; Hemodynamic Processes/*drug effects/physiology; Horses/blood/*physiology; Infusions, Intravenous; Male; Myocardial Contraction/drug effects/physiology; Respiration/drug effects/physiology; Stroke Volume/drug effects/physiology; Time Factors |
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Calcium gluconate was administered to conscious horses at 3 different rates (0.1, 0.2, and 0.4 mg/kg/min for 15 minutes each). Serum calcium concentrations and parameters of cardiovascular function were evaluated. All 3 calcium administration rates caused marked increases in both ionized and total calcium concentrations, cardiac index, stroke index, and cardiac contractility (dP/dtmax). Mean arterial pressure and right atrial pressure were unchanged; heart rate decreased markedly during calcium administration. Ionized calcium concentration remained between 54% and 57% of total calcium concentration throughout the study. We conclude that calcium gluconate can safely be administered to conscious horses at 0.1 to 0.4 mg/kg/min and that administration will result in improved cardiac function. |
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Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA |
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0891-6640 |
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PMID:8947873 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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97 |
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Kinnunen, S.; Laukkanen, R.; Haldi, J.; Hanninen, O.; Atalay, M. |
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Heart rate variability in trotters during different training periods |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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36 |
Pages |
214-217 |
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Animals; Autonomic Nervous System/physiology; Female; Heart Rate/*physiology; Horses/blood/*physiology; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*methods/*physiology; Physical Endurance/physiology; Physical Fitness/physiology; Rest/physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Endurance training induces changes in autonomic nervous system functions. High intensity training includes the risk of overtraining, in man and horse. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a noninvasive measurement of the autonomic regulation of the heart rate, which is quick and easy to measure with modern telemetric technology. HYPOTHESIS: Since HRV is affected by changes in the autonomic nervous system, it might be an early stage indicator of poor recovery from a previous bout of exercise or overreaching or overtraining in horses in general. METHODS: The aim of the study was to monitor recovery and the possible overtraining status in horses by measuring HRV. The measurements reflected the responses of the previous day activities during different training periods including basic training, precompetition and competition during a one-year follow-up. RESULTS: HRV was at the highest during precompetition period (P<0.05) and it decreased significantly during competition period (P<0.05), indicating an increased stress load in the competition period. Walking increased HRV significantly compared to complete rest or jogging as previous day activities during basic training and precompetition periods (P<0.05). This finding suggests that horses are more relaxed during moderate exercise than standing still or anaerobic exercise. CONCLUSIONS: HRV can be used to monitor the cardiovascular responses to training in horses but confirmatory measures may also be required in addition to HRV to exclude other possible causes of underperformance. |
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Equine Information Centre, P.O. Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland |
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PMID:17402421 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4008 |
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Aureli, F.; Preston, S.D.; de Waal, F.B. |
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Heart rate responses to social interactions in free-moving rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): a pilot study |
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Journal Article |
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1999 |
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Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) |
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J Comp Psychol |
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113 |
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1 |
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59-65 |
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Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Female; Grooming/physiology; Heart Rate/*physiology; Macaca mulatta/*physiology; Male; Movement/*physiology; Pilot Projects; *Social Behavior |
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Heart rate telemetry was explored as a means to access animal emotion during social interactions under naturalistic conditions. Heart rates of 2 middle-ranking adult females living in a large group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were recorded along with their behavior. Heart rate changes during 2 types of interactions were investigated, while controlling for the effects of posture and activity. The risk of aggression associated with the approach of a dominant individual was expected to provoke anxiety in the approachee. This prediction was supported by the heart rate increase after such an approach. No increase was found when the approacher was a kin or a subordinate individual. The tension-reduction function of allogrooming was also supported. Heart rate decelerated faster during the receipt of grooming than in matched control periods. |
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Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA. aureli@rmy.emory.edu |
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0735-7036 |
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PMID:10098269 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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197 |
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Lynch, J.J.; Fregin, G.F.; Mackie, J.B.; Monroe, R.R.J. |
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Heart rate changes in the horse to human contact |
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1974 |
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Psychophysiology |
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Psychophysiology |
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11 |
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4 |
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472-478 |
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Animals; Behavior, Animal; Electrocardiography/veterinary; *Heart Rate; Horses/*physiology; Humans; *Social Behavior; *Touch |
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0048-5772 |
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PMID:4852234 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1965 |
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Visser, E.K.; van Reenen, C.G.; van der Werf, J.T.N.; Schilder, M.B.H.; Knaap, J.H.; Barneveld, A.; Blokhuis, H.J. |
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Heart rate and heart rate variability during a novel object test and a handling test in young horses |
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2002 |
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Physiology & Behavior |
Abbreviated Journal |
Physiol. Behav. |
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76 |
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2 |
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289-296 |
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Heart rate; Heart rate variability; Consistency; Behavioral tests; Temperament; Emotionality; Horses |
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Forty-one Dutch Warmblood immature horses were used in a study to quantify temperamental traits on the basis of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) measures. Half of the horses received additional training from the age of 5 months onwards; the other half did not. Horses were tested at 9, 10, 21 and 22 months of age in a novel object and a handling test. During the tests, mean HR and two heart variability indices, e.g. standard deviation of beat-to-beat intervals (SDRR) and root mean square of successive beat-to-beat differences (rMSSD), were calculated and expressed as response values to baseline measures. In both tests, horses showed at all ages a significant increase in mean HR and decrease in HRV measures, which suggests a marked shift of the balance of the autonomic nervous system towards a sympathetic dominance. In the novel object test, this shift was more pronounced in horses that had not been trained. Furthermore, statistical analysis showed that the increase in mean HR could not be entirely explained by the physical activity. The additional increase in HR, the nonmotor HR, was more pronounced in the untrained horses compared to the trained. Hence, it is suggested that this nonmotor HR might be due to the level of emotionality. HR variables showed consistency between years, as well as within the second year. These tests bring about a HR response in horses, part of which may indicate a higher level of emotionality; and horses show individual consistency of these HR variables over ages. Therefore, it is concluded that mean HR and HRV measures used with these tests quantify certain aspects of a horse's temperament. |
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refbase @ user @ |
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320 |
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Minero, M.; Canali, E.; Ferrante, V.; Verga, M.; Odberg, F.O. |
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Heart rate and behavioural responses of crib-biting horses to two acute stressors |
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Journal Article |
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1999 |
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The Veterinary Record |
Abbreviated Journal |
Vet. Rec. |
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145 |
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15 |
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430-433 |
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Acute Disease; Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Female; Heart Rate/*physiology; Horse Diseases/*physiopathology; Horses/*physiology/psychology; Male; Stereotyped Behavior/*physiology; Stress/physiopathology/psychology/*veterinary |
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The heart rate and behaviour of 14 adult saddle horses, eight crib-biters and six normal controls, were investigated. Initially, the relationship between crib-biting and heart rate was investigated while the horses were undisturbed. The horses were tested when restrained with a lip twitch, and assessed when they were exposed suddenly to the rapid inflation of a balloon. The heart rate of the crib-biters during crib-biting was lower than during other behaviours. The crib-biters had a higher overall mean heart rate (P<0.05) suggesting that they may have had a higher basal sympathetic activity. After the application of the twitch, all the horses had a transient increase in heart rate which returned to basal values more rapidly in the crib-biters. The crib-biters were less reactive to the lip twitch, five of the six investigated remaining calm, and after the release of the twitch, they spent more time nibbling (P<0.05) than the control horses. The crib-biters reacted more strongly to the inflation of the balloon (three of the six reacted), and after it had been inflated they spent more time walking in the box. |
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Instituto di Zootecnica Veterinaria, Universita degli Studi di Milano, Italy |
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0042-4900 |
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PMID:10755589 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1921 |
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McCall, C.A.; Hall, S.; McElhenney, W.H.; Cummins, K.A. |
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Title |
Evaluation and comparison of four methods of ranking horses based on reactivity |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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Volume |
96 |
Issue |
1-2 |
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115-127 |
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Horse; Reactivity tests; Heart rate; Emotionality; Temperament |
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Four methods of ranking horses on reactivity were evaluated and compared: isolation from conspecifics, presentation of a static novel stimulus, traversing a novel stimulus in a runway (isolation, novel stimulus and runway tests, respectively) and assigning subjective emotionality scores. In all tests, horses' heart rates were recorded and behaviour was videotaped. To be considered a valid test of reactivity, at least one heart rate and one behavioural measurement in the test had to change significantly between treatments (tranquilizer administation versus sham tranquilizer administration), and behavioural measures had to be displayed in at least 75% of the trials. Forty horses performed each of the three tests daily on three different days in a switchback design. Horses were assigned randomly to a daily test sequence, which was maintained throughout the study. In the runway test, no significant difference in heart rate values in tranquilized and non-tranquilized horses was found, and no behavioural attribute was displayed in more than 52% of the trials; therefore it was rejected as a valid test of reactivity. Both isolation and novel stimulus tests produced valid measurements. Mean heart rate was the most precise physiological measure for these tests, and walking and defecation frequency were the most precise behavioural measures for novel stimulus and isolation tests, respectively. Mean heart rates on the novel stimulus and isolation tests were correlated (rs = 0.79, P < 0.01) indicating that these tests produced similar rankings based on physiological responses. However, behavioural measures ranked horses differently (rs = 0.27, P < 0.10) on the tests. Rank correlations between mean heart rates and behavioural measures were higher in the novel stimulus (rs = 0.66, P < 0.01) than the isolation test (rs = 0.55, P < 0.01), indicating that the novel stimulus test ranked horses based on either physiological or behavioural responses more similarly than did the isolation test. Therefore, the novel stimulus test was considered the more accurate evaluation of reactivity. Subjective emotionality scores were correlated moderately with mean heart rates (rs > 0.33, P < 0.01) from the novel stimulus and isolation tests and with walking scores (rs = 0.47, P < 0.01) from the novel stimulus test. Assignment of subjective emotionality scores was not as accurate as the novel stimulus or isolation tests in ranking horses for reactivity. Using physiological data alone, combining physiological and behavioural measurements or using more than one behavioural measurement in reactivity tests may reflect the reactivity of the horse better than a single behavioural measurement. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3578 |
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König von Borstel, U.; Euent, S.; Graf, P.; König, S.; Gauly, M. |
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Title |
Equine behaviour and heart rate in temperament tests with or without rider or handler |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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Physiology & Behavior |
Abbreviated Journal |
Physiol. Behav. |
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104 |
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3 |
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454-463 |
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Equine; Temperament; Human–animal interaction; Horseback riding; Heart rate variability; Reactivity |
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Abstract |
The aim of the present study was to compare horses' heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (RMSSD, pNN50) and behaviour in the same temperament test when being ridden, led, and released free. Behavioural measurements included scores and linear measurements for reactivity (R), activity (A), time to calm down (T) and emotionality (E), recorded during the approach (1) and/or during confrontation with the stimulus (2). Sixty-five horses were each confronted 3 times (1 ridden, 1 led, 1 free running in balanced order) with 3 novel and/or sudden stimuli. Mixed model analysis indicated that leading resulted in the lowest (P < 0.05 throughout) reactions as measured by A1, A2, E1, E2, R2, and pNN50 while riding produced the strongest (A1, T2, HR, RMSSD, pNN50) or medium (E1, E2, R2) reactions. Free running resulted either in the strongest (A2, E1, E2, R2) or in the lowest (A1, T2, HR, RMSSD, pNN50) reactions. The repeatability across tests for HR (0.57), but not for RMSSD (0.23) or pNN50 (0.25) was higher than for any behavioural measurement: the latter ranged from values below 0.10 (A1, A2, T2) to values between 0.30 and 0.45 (E1, E2, R2). Overall, the results show that a rider or handler influences, but not completely masks, the horses' intrinsic behaviour in a temperament test, and this influence appeared to be stronger on behavioural variables and heart rate variability than on the horses' heart rates. Taking both practical considerations and repeatabilities into account, reactivity appears to be the most valuable parameter. Emotionality and heart rate can also yield valid results reflecting additional dimensions of temperament although their practical relevance may be less obvious. If a combination of observed variables is chosen with care, a valid assessment of a horse's temperament may be possible in all types of tests. However, in practice, tests that resemble the practical circumstances most closely, i.e. testing riding horses under a rider, should be chosen. |
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0031-9384 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5641 |
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