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Author |
Sarter, M. |
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Title |
Animal cognition: defining the issues |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
Abbreviated Journal |
Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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Volume |
28 |
Issue |
7 |
Pages |
645-650 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Cognition/*physiology; Humans; *Models, Animal; Psychopharmacology/methods; Reproducibility of Results |
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Abstract |
The assessment of cognitive functions in rodents represents a critical experimental variable in many research fields, ranging from the basic cognitive neurosciences to psychopharmacology and neurotoxicology. The increasing use of animal behavioral tests as 'assays' for the assessment of effects on learning and memory has resulted in a considerable heterogeneity of data, particularly in the field of behavioral and psycho pharmacology. The limited predictive validity of changes in behavioral performance observed in standard animal tests of learning and memory indicates that a renewed effort to scrutinize the validity of these tests is warranted. In humans, levels of processing (effortful vs. automatic) and categories of information (procedural vs. episodic/declarative) are important variables of cognitive operations. The design of tasks that assess the recall of 'episodic' or 'declarative' information appears to represent a particular challenge for research using laboratory rodents. For example, the hypothesis that changes in inspection time for a previously encountered place or object are based on the recall of declarative/episodic information requires substantiation. In order to generalize findings on the effects of neuronal or pharmacological manipulations on learning and memory, obtained from one species and one task, to other species and other tasks, the mediating role of important sets of variables which influence learning and memory (e.g. attentional, affective) needs to be determined. Similar to the view that a neuronal manipulation (e.g. a lesion) represents a theory of the condition modeled (e.g. a degenerative disorder), an animal behavioral task represents a theory of the behavioral/cognitive process of interest. Therefore, the test of hypotheses regarding the validity of procedures used to assess cognitive functions in animals is an inherent part of the research process. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 4032 East Hall, 525 E. University Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1109, USA. msarter@umich.edu |
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0149-7634 |
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PMID:15555674 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2804 |
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Author |
Branchi, I.; Bichler, Z.; Berger-Sweeney, J.; Ricceri, L. |
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Title |
Animal models of mental retardation: from gene to cognitive function |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
Abbreviated Journal |
Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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Volume |
27 |
Issue |
1-2 |
Pages |
141-153 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Animals, Genetically Modified/growth & development; Behavior/physiology; Behavior, Animal; Brain/*growth & development; Cognition/*physiology; *Disease Models, Animal; Environment; Genes; Genetic Diseases, Inborn/physiopathology; Humans; Mental Retardation/classification/*genetics/*physiopathology |
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About 2-3% of all children are affected by mental retardation, and genetic conditions rank among the leading causes of mental retardation. Alterations in the information encoded by genes that regulate critical steps of brain development can disrupt the normal course of development, and have profound consequences on mental processes. Genetically modified mouse models have helped to elucidate the contribution of specific gene alterations and gene-environment interactions to the phenotype of several forms of mental retardation. Mouse models of several neurodevelopmental pathologies, such as Down and Rett syndromes and X-linked forms of mental retardation, have been developed. Because behavior is the ultimate output of brain, behavioral phenotyping of these models provides functional information that may not be detectable using molecular, cellular or histological evaluations. In particular, the study of ontogeny of behavior is recommended in mouse models of disorders having a developmental onset. Identifying the role of specific genes in neuropathologies provides a framework in which to understand key stages of human brain development, and provides a target for potential therapeutic intervention. |
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Section of Behavioural Pathophysiology, Laboratorio di Fisiopatologia di Organo e di Sistema, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Roma, Italy. branchi@iss.it |
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PMID:12732230 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2805 |
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Milgram, N.W.; Head, E.; Muggenburg, B.; Holowachuk, D.; Murphey, H.; Estrada, J.; Ikeda-Douglas, C.J.; Zicker, S.C.; Cotman, C.W. |
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Title |
Landmark discrimination learning in the dog: effects of age, an antioxidant fortified food, and cognitive strategy |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
Abbreviated Journal |
Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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26 |
Issue |
6 |
Pages |
679-695 |
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Keywords |
Age Factors; Aging/*physiology; Analysis of Variance; Animals; Antioxidants/*pharmacology; Blood Chemical Analysis/methods; Cognition/*physiology; *Diet; Discrimination Learning/*drug effects/*physiology; Distance Perception/drug effects/physiology; Dogs/physiology; Female; Male; Psychomotor Performance/physiology; Retention (Psychology)/drug effects/physiology; Spatial Behavior/*drug effects/*physiology; Task Performance and Analysis; Time Factors; Vitamin E/blood |
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The landmark discrimination learning test can be used to assess the ability to utilize allocentric spatial information to locate targets. The present experiments examined the role of various factors on performance of a landmark discrimination learning task in beagle dogs. Experiments 1 and 2 looked at the effects of age and food composition. Experiments 3 and 4 were aimed at characterizing the cognitive strategies used in performance on this task and in long-term retention. Cognitively equivalent groups of old and young dogs were placed into either a test group maintained on food enriched with a broad-spectrum of antioxidants and mitochondrial cofactors, or a control group maintained on a complete and balanced food formulated for adult dogs. Following a wash-in period, the dogs were tested on a series of problems, in which reward was obtained when the animal responded selectively to the object closest to a thin wooden block, which served as a landmark. In Experiment 1, dogs were first trained to respond to a landmark placed directly on top of coaster, landmark 0 (L0). In the next phase of testing, the landmark was moved at successively greater distances (1, 4 or 10 cm) away from the reward object. Learning varied as a function of age group, food group, and task. The young dogs learned all of the tasks more quickly than the old dogs. The aged dogs on the enriched food learned L0 significantly more rapidly than aged dogs on control food. A higher proportion of dogs on the enriched food learned the task, when the distance was increased to 1cm. Experiment 2 showed that accuracy decreased with increased distance between the reward object and landmark, and this effect was greater in old animals. Experiment 3 showed stability of performance, despite using a novel landmark, and new locations, indicating that dogs learned the landmark concept. Experiment 4 found age impaired long-term retention of the landmark task. These results indicate that allocentric spatial learning is impaired in an age-dependent manner in dogs, and that age also affects performance when the distance between the landmark and target is increased. In addition, these results both support a role of oxidative damage in the development of age-associated cognitive dysfunction and indicate that short-term administration of a food enriched with supplemental antioxidants and mitochondrial cofactors can partially reverse the deleterious effects of aging on cognition. |
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Life Science Division, University of Toronto at Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ont., Canada M1C 1A4. milgram@psych.utoronto.ca |
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0149-7634 |
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PMID:12479842 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2806 |
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Author |
Gallup, G.G.J. |
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Title |
Do minds exist in species other than our own? |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1985 |
Publication |
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
Abbreviated Journal |
Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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Volume |
9 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
631-641 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Awareness; *Behavior, Animal; Child Psychology; Child, Preschool; *Cognition; Consciousness; Evolution; Humans; Infant; Language; Pan troglodytes; Philosophy; Psychological Theory; Species Specificity |
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Abstract |
An answer to the question of animal awareness depends on evidence, not intuition, anecdote, or debate. This paper examines some of the problems inherent in an analysis of animal awareness, and whether animals might be aware of being aware is offered as a more meaningful distinction. A framework is presented which can be used to make a determination about the extent to which other species have experiences similar to ours based on their ability to make inferences and attributions about mental states in others. The evidence from both humans and animals is consistent with the idea that the capacity to use experience to infer the experience of others is a byproduct of self-awareness. |
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0149-7634 |
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PMID:4080281 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2808 |
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Author |
Epstein, R. |
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Title |
Animal cognition as the praxist views it |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1985 |
Publication |
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews |
Abbreviated Journal |
Neurosci Biobehav Rev |
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9 |
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4 |
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623-630 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Behavioral Sciences/*trends; Behaviorism; *Cognition; Columbidae; History, 18th Century; History, 19th Century; Humans; Models, Psychological; Problem Solving; Psychological Theory; Psychology/history/trends |
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The distinction between psychology and praxics provides a clear answer to the question of animal cognition. As Griffin and others have noted, the kinds of behavioral phenomena that lead psychologists to speak of cognition in humans are also observed in nonhuman animals, and therefore those who are convinced of the legitimacy of psychology should not hesitate to speak of and to attempt to study animal cognition. The behavior of organisms is also a legitimate subject matter, and praxics, the study of behavior, has led to significant advances in our understanding of the kinds of behaviors that lead psychologists to speak of cognition. Praxics is a biological science; the attempt by students of behavior to appropriate psychology has been misguided. Generativity theory is an example of a formal theory of behavior that has proved useful both in the engineering of intelligent performances in nonhuman animals and in the prediction of intelligent performances in humans. |
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0149-7634 |
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PMID:3909017 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2809 |
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Author |
Heschl, A.; Burkart, J. |
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Title |
A new mark test for mirror self-recognition in non-human primates |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Primates |
Abbreviated Journal |
Primates |
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Volume |
47 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
187-198 |
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Keywords |
Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Callithrix/*physiology; Cognition/*physiology; Discrimination (Psychology)/physiology; Female; Male; Photic Stimulation; *Self Concept |
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For 30 years Gallup's (Science 167:86-87, 1970) mark test, which consists of confronting a mirror-experienced test animal with its own previously altered mirror image, usually a color mark on forehead, eyebrow or ear, has delivered valuable results about the distribution of visual self-recognition in non-human primates. Chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans and, less frequently, gorillas can learn to correctly understand the reflection of their body in a mirror. However, the standard version of the mark test is good only for positively proving the existence of self-recognition. Conclusive statements about the lack of self-recognition are more difficult because of the methodological constraints of the test. This situation has led to a persistent controversy about the power of Gallup's original technique. We devised a new variant of the test which permits more unequivocal decisions about both the presence and absence of self-recognition. This new procedure was tested with marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus), following extensive training with mirror-related tasks to facilitate performance in the standard mark test. The results show that a slightly altered mark test with a new marking substance (chocolate cream) can help to reliably discriminate between true negative results, indicating a real lack of ability to recognize oneself in a mirror, from false negative results that are due to methodological particularities of the standard test. Finally, an evolutionary hypothesis is put forward as to why many primates can use a mirror instrumentally – i.e. know how to use it for grasping at hidden objects – while failing in the decisive mark test. |
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Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research, Adolf Lorenz Gasse 2, 3422, Altenberg, Austria. adolf.heschl@uni-graz.at |
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0032-8332 |
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PMID:16432640 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2810 |
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Author |
Poti, P. |
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Chimpanzees' constructional praxis (Pan paniscus, P. troglodytes) |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Primates |
Abbreviated Journal |
Primates |
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46 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
103-113 |
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Animals; *Cognition; *Discrimination Learning; Female; Male; Pan troglodytes/*physiology; Psychomotor Performance/*physiology; Spatial Behavior/*physiology; Species Specificity |
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This study investigated chimpanzees' spontaneous spatial constructions with objects and especially their ability to repeat inter-object spatial relations, which is basic to understanding spatial relations at a higher level than perception or recognition. Subjects were six chimpanzees-four chimpanzees and two bonobos-aged 6-21 years, all raised in a human environment from an early age. Only minor species differences, but considerable individual differences were found. The effect of different object samples was assessed through a comparison with a previous study. A common overall chimpanzee pattern was also found. Chimpanzees repeated different types of inter-object spatial relations such as insertion (I), or vertical (V), or next-to (H) relations. However chimpanzees repeated I or V relations with more advanced procedures than when repeating H relations. Moreover, chimpanzees never repeated combined HV relations. Compared with children, chimpanzees showed a specific difficulty in repeating H relations. Repeating H relations is crucial for representing and understanding multiple reciprocal spatial relations between detached elements and for coordinating independent positions in space. Therefore, the chimpanzees' difficulty indicates a fundamental difference in constructive space in comparison to humans. The findings are discussed in relation to issues of spatial cognition and tool use. |
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Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione, CNR, via U. Aldrovandi 16b, 00197, Rome, Italy. p.poti@istc.cnr.it |
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0032-8332 |
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PMID:15378424 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2811 |
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Liebal, K.; Pika, S.; Tomasello, M. |
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Social communication in siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus): use of gestures and facial expressions |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Primates |
Abbreviated Journal |
Primates |
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45 |
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1 |
Pages |
41-57 |
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Age Factors; *Animal Communication; Animals; Animals, Zoo/*physiology; *Cognition; Female; Hylobates/*physiology; *Kinesics; Male; Sex Factors; *Social Behavior; Video Recording |
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The current study represents the first systematic investigation of the social communication of captive siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus). The focus was on intentional signals, including tactile and visual gestures, as well as facial expressions and actions. Fourteen individuals from different groups were observed and the signals used by individuals were recorded. Thirty-one different signals, consisting of 12 tactile gestures, 8 visual gestures, 7 actions, and 4 facial expressions, were observed, with tactile gestures and facial expressions appearing most frequently. The range of the signal repertoire increased steadily until the age of six, but declined afterwards in adults. The proportions of the different signal categories used within communicative interactions, in particular actions and facial expressions, also varied depending on age. Group differences could be traced back mainly to social factors or housing conditions. Differences in the repertoire of males and females were most obvious in the sexual context. Overall, most signals were used flexibly, with the majority performed in three or more social contexts and almost one-third of signals used in combination with other signals. Siamangs also adjusted their signals appropriately for the recipient, for example, using visual signals most often when the recipient was already attending (audience effects). These observations are discussed in the context of siamang ecology, social structure, and cognition. |
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Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany. liebal@eva.mpg.de |
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0032-8332 |
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PMID:14655035 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2812 |
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Murai, C.; Tomonaga, M.; Kamegai, K.; Terazawa, N.; Yamaguchi, M.K. |
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Do infant Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata) categorize objects without specific training? |
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2004 |
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Primates |
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Primates |
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45 |
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1 |
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1-6 |
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Analysis of Variance; Animals; *Cognition; *Concept Formation; *Generalization, Stimulus; Japan; Macaca/*psychology; Male |
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In the present study, we examined whether infant Japanese macaques categorize objects without any training, using a similar technique also used with human infants (the paired-preference method). During the familiarization phase, subjects were presented twice with two pairs of different objects from one global-level category. During the test phase, they were presented twice with a pair consisting of a novel familiar-category object and a novel global-level category object. The subjects were tested with three global-level categories (animal, furniture, and vehicle). It was found that they showed significant novelty preferences as a whole, indicating that they processed similarities between familiarization objects and novel familiar-category objects. These results suggest that subjects responded distinctively to objects without training, indicating the possibility that infant macaques possess the capacity for categorization. |
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Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan. cmurai@bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp |
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0032-8332 |
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PMID:14505179 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2813 |
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Author |
Sachs, E. |
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Title |
Dissociation of learning in rats and its similarities to dissociative states in man |
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1967 |
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Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Psychopathological Association |
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Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc |
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55 |
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249-304 |
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Animals; Attention; Avoidance Learning; Chlorpromazine/pharmacology; Cognition; Conditioning (Psychology); Conflict (Psychology); *Dissociative Disorders; Fear; Humans; *Learning; Rats |
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0091-7389 |
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PMID:4862744 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2814 |
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