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	Author	Zentall, T.R.
	Title	Imitation: definitions, evidence, and mechanisms			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	4	Pages	335-353
	Keywords	Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Motivation; Social Environment; Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	Imitation can be defined as the copying of behavior. To a biologist, interest in imitation is focused on its adaptive value for the survival of the organism, but to a psychologist, the mechanisms responsible for imitation are the most interesting. For psychologists, the most important cases of imitation are those that involve demonstrated behavior that the imitator cannot see when it performs the behavior (e.g., scratching one's head). Such examples of imitation are sometimes referred to as opaque imitation because they are difficult to account for without positing cognitive mechanisms, such as perspective taking, that most animals have not been acknowledged to have. The present review first identifies various forms of social influence and social learning that do not qualify as opaque imitation, including species-typical mechanisms (e.g., mimicry and contagion), motivational mechanisms (e.g., social facilitation, incentive motivation, transfer of fear), attentional mechanisms (e.g., local enhancement, stimulus enhancement), imprinting, following, observational conditioning, and learning how the environment works (affordance learning). It then presents evidence for different forms of opaque imitation in animals, and identifies characteristics of human imitation that have been proposed to distinguish it from animal imitation. Finally, it examines the role played in opaque imitation by demonstrator reinforcement and observer motivation. Although accounts of imitation have been proposed that vary in their level of analysis from neural to cognitive, at present no theory of imitation appears to be adequate to account for the varied results that have been found.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA. Zentall@uky.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:17024510			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	217
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Miklósi, Á.; Soproni, K.
	Title	A comparative analysis of animals' understanding of the human pointing gesture			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2006	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	9	Issue	2	Pages	81-93
	Keywords	Animal Communication; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Child; Child, Preschool; Dogs; Fixation, Ocular; Gestures; Hand; Humans; Nonverbal Communication; Pinnipedia; Primates; Problem Solving; *Recognition (Psychology); Species Specificity
	Abstract	We review studies demonstrating the ability of some animals to understand the human pointing gesture. We present a 3-step analysis of the topic. (1) We compare and evaluate current experimental methods (2) We compare available experimental results on performance of different species and investigate the interaction of species differences and other independent variables (3) We evaluate how our present understanding of pointing comprehension answers questions about function, evolution and mechanisms. Recently, a number of different hypotheses have been put forward to account for the presence of this ability in some species and for the lack of such comprehension in others. In our view, there is no convincing evidence for the assumption that the competitive lifestyles of apes would inhibit the utilization of this human gesture. Similarly, domestication as a special evolutionary factor in the case of some species falls short in explaining high levels of pointing comprehension in some non-domestic species. We also disagree with the simplistic view of describing the phenomenon as a simple form of conditioning. We suggest that a more systematic comparative research is needed to understand the emerging communicative representational abilities in animals that provide the background for comprehending the human pointing gesture.
	Address	Department of Ethology, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Pazmany P 1/c, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary. miklosa@ludens.elte.hu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:16235075			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	463
Permanent link to this record



	Author	de Waal, F.B.M.
	Title	Silent invasion: Imanishi's primatology and cultural bias in science			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Animal cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	6	Issue	4	Pages	293-299
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Culture; Ecosystem; History, 20th Century; Philosophy; Portraits; Prejudice; Primates/psychology; Psychology, Comparative/*history; Research Design/trends
	Abstract
	Address	Living Links, Yerkes Primate Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. dewaal@emory.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:14551801			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	178
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Ray, E.D.; Heyes, C.M.
	Title	Do rats in a two-action test encode movement egocentrically or allocentrically?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	4	Pages	245-252
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Discrimination Learning; Imitative Behavior; Male; Random Allocation; Rats/physiology/psychology; Smell
	Abstract	Two-action tests of imitation compare groups that observe topographically different responses to a common manipulandum. The general aim of the two experiments reported here was to find a demonstrator-consistent responding effect in a procedure that could be elaborated to investigate aspects of what was learned about the demonstrated lever response. Experiment 1 was a pilot study with rats of a variant of the two-action method of investigating social learning about observed responses. Groups of observer rats ( Rattus norvegicus) saw a demonstrator push a lever up or down for a food reward. When these observers were subsequently given access to the lever and rewarded for responses in both directions, their directional preferences were compared with two 'screen control' groups that were unable to see their demonstrators' behaviour. Demonstrator-consistent responding was found to be restricted to observers that were able to see demonstrator performance, suggesting that scent cues alone were insufficient to cue a preference for the demonstrators' response direction and thereby that the rats learned by observation about body movements (imitation) or lever movement (emulation). Experiment 2 assessed responding on two levers, one that had been manipulated by the demonstrator, and a second, transposed lever positioned some distance away. Demonstrator-consistent responding was abolished when actions were observed and performed in different parts of the apparatus, suggesting that observed movement was encoded allocentrically with respect to the apparatus rather than egocentrically with respect to the actor's body. With particular reference to the influence of scent cues, the results are discussed in relation to the strengths and weaknesses of this and other varieties of the two-action procedure as tests of imitation in animals and human infants.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK. e.ray@ucl.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12461602			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2588
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	Author	Fremouw, T.; Herbranson, W.T.; Shimp, C.P.
	Title	Dynamic shifts of pigeon local/global attention			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	4	Pages	233-243
	Keywords	Animals; Attention/physiology; Behavior, Animal; Columbidae/physiology; Male; Reaction Time; Visual Perception/physiology
	Abstract	It has previously been shown that pigeons can shift attention between parts and wholes of complex stimuli composed of larger, “global” characters constructed from smaller, “local” characters. The base-rate procedure used biased target level within any condition at either the local or global level; targets were more likely at one level than at the other. Biasing of target level in this manner demonstrated shifts of local/global attention over a time span consisting of several days with a fixed base rate. Experiment 1 examined the possibility that pigeons can shift attention between local and global levels of perceptual analysis in seconds rather than days. The experiment used priming cues the color of which predicted on a trial-by-trial basis targets at different perceptual levels. The results confirmed that pigeons, like humans, can display highly dynamic stimulus-driven shifts of local/global attention. Experiment 2 changed spatial relations between features of priming cues and features of targets within a task otherwise similar to that used in experiment 1. It was predicted that this change in cues might affect asymmetry but not the occurrence of a priming effect. A priming effect was again obtained, thereby providing generality to the claim that pigeons can learn that trial-by-trial primes predict targets at different levels of perceptual analysis. Pigeons can display perceptual, stimulus-driven priming of a highly dynamic nature.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of California-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12461601			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2589
Permanent link to this record



	Author	Caldwell, C.A.; Whiten, A.
	Title	Evolutionary perspectives on imitation: is a comparative psychology of social learning possible?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	4	Pages	193-208
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Evolution; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning; Models, Animal
	Abstract	Studies of imitation in animals have become numerous in recent times, but do they contribute to a comparative psychology of social learning? We review this burgeoning field to identify the problems and prospects for such a goal. Difficulties of two main kinds are identified. First, researchers have tackled questions about social learning from at least three very different theoretical perspectives, the “phylogenetic”, “animal model”, and “adaptational”. We examine the conflicts between them and consider the scope for integration. A second difficulty arises in the methodological approaches used in the discipline. In relation to one of these – survey reviews of published studies – we tabulate and compare the contrasting conclusions of nine articles that together review 36 studies. The basis for authors' disagreements, including the matters of perceptual opacity, novelty, sequential structure, and goal representation, are examined. In relation to the other key method, comparative experimentation, we identify 12 studies that have explicitly compared species' imitative ability on similar tasks. We examine the principal problems of comparing like with like in these studies and consider solutions, the most powerful of which we propose to be the use of a systematic range of task designs, rather than any single “gold standard” task.
	Address	School of Psychology, Washington Singer Laboratories, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK. C.A.Caldwell@exeter.ac.uk
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12461597			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2593
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	Author	Pepperberg, I.M.
	Title	The value of the Piagetian framework for comparative cognitive studies			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	3	Pages	177-182
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Cognition; Discrimination Learning; Intelligence; Models, Psychological; *Models, Theoretical
	Abstract	Although the Piagetian framework has been used by numerous researchers to compare cognitive abilities of diverse species, the system is often criticized as implemented. I examine the various criticisms, suggest ways in which the system can be improved, and argue for the need for descriptive systems such as the Piagetian framework to complement programs that look for cellular and molecular bases or mathematical models to explain behavior.
	Address	School of Architecture and Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. impepper@media.mit.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12357290			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2595
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	Author	Waite, T.A.
	Title	Interruptions improve choice performance in gray jays: prolonged information processing versus minimization of costly errors			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2002	Publication	Animal Cognition	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Cogn.
	Volume	5	Issue	4	Pages	209-214
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Choice Behavior; Female; Learning; Male; Models, Biological; Motivation; Reinforcement Schedule; Songbirds/*physiology; Time Factors
	Abstract	Under the assumption that selection favors minimization of costly errors, erroneous choice may be common when its fitness cost is low. According to an adaptive-choice model, this cost depends on the rate at which an animal encounters the choice: the higher this rate, the smaller the cost of choosing a less valuable option. Errors should thus be more common when interruptions to foraging are shorter. A previous experiment supported this prediction: gray jays, Perisoreus canadensis, were more error prone when subjected to shorter delays to access to food rewards. This pattern, though, is also predicted by an attentional-constraints model. Because the subjects were able to inspect the rewards during delays, their improved performance when subjected to longer delays could have been a byproduct of the experimentally prolonged opportunity for information processing. To evaluate this possibility, a follow-up experiment manipulated both delay to access and whether rewards could be inspected during delays. Depriving jays of the opportunity to inspect rewards (using opaque lids) induced only a small, nonsignificant increase in error rate. This effect was independent of length of delay and so the jays' improved performance when subjected to longer delays was not simply a byproduct of prolonged information processing. More definitively, even when the jays were prevented from inspecting rewards during delays, their performance improved when subjected to longer delays. The findings are thus consistent with the adaptive-choice model.
	Address	Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, 1735 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1293, USA. waite.1@osu.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	1435-9448	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12461598			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2592
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	Author	Viscido, S.V.; Miller, M.; Wethey, D.S.
	Title	The response of a selfish herd to an attack from outside the group perimeter			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Journal of theoretical biology	Abbreviated Journal	J. Theor. Biol.
	Volume	208	Issue	3	Pages	315-328
	Keywords	Animals; Behavior, Animal; Computer Simulation; Models, Biological; *Movement; Predatory Behavior
	Abstract	According to the selfish herd hypothesis, animals can decrease predation risk by moving toward one another if the predator can appear anywhere and will attack the nearest target. Previous studies have shown that aggregations can form using simple movement rules designed to decrease each animal's Domain of Danger. However, if the predator attacks from outside the group's perimeter, these simple movement rules might not lead to aggregation. To test whether simple selfish movement rules would decrease predation risk for those situations when the predator attacks from outside the flock perimeter, we constructed a computer model that allowed flocks of 75 simulated fiddler crabs to react to one another, and to a predator attacking from 7 m away. We attacked simulated crab flocks with predators of different sizes and attack speeds, and computed relative predation risk after 120 time steps. Final trajectories showed flight toward the center of the flock, but curving away from the predator. Path curvature depended on the predator's size and approach speed. The average crab experienced a greater decrease in predation risk when the predator was small or slow moving. Regardless of the predator's size and speed, however, predation risk always decreased as long as crabs took their flock-mates into account. We conclude that, even when flight away from an external predator occurs, the selfish avoidance of danger can lead to aggregation.
	Address	Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, U.S.A. viscido@u.washington.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0022-5193	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:11207093			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	555
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	Author	Aureli, F.; de Waal, F.B.
	Title	Inhibition of social behavior in chimpanzees under high-density conditions			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1997	Publication	American journal of primatology	Abbreviated Journal	Am. J. Primatol.
	Volume	41	Issue	3	Pages	213-228
	Keywords	Aggression/psychology; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Crowding; Female; Male; Pan troglodytes/psychology; Population Density; *Social Environment; Stress, Psychological
	Abstract	This is the first study to investigate the short-term effects of high population density on captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Subjects of the study were 45 chimpanzees living in five different groups at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center. The groups were observed under two conditions: 1) when they had access to both the indoor and outdoor sections of their enclosures; 2) during cold days when they were locked into the indoor runs, which reduced the available space by more than half. Under the high-density condition, allogrooming and submissive greetings decreased, but juvenile play increased. Remarkably, the rate of various forms of agonistic behavior, such as aggression, bluff charge, bluff display, and hooting, occurred less frequently under the high-density condition. This general decrease in adult social activity, including agonistic behavior, can be interpreted as an inhibition strategy to reduce opportunities for conflict when interindividual distances are reduced. This strategy is probably effective only in the short run, however. Behavioral indicators of anxiety, such as rough scratching and yawning, showed elevated rates, suggesting increased social tension under the high-density condition.
	Address	Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0275-2565	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:9057966			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	203
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