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	Author	Udell, M.A.R.; Dorey, N.R.; Wynne, C.D.L.
	Title	Wolves outperform dogs in following human social cues			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2008	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	76	Issue	6	Pages	1767-1773
	Keywords	Canis familiaris; Canis lupus; dog; dog shelter; domestication; momentary distal point; object choice; social cognition; wolf
	Abstract	Domestic dogs, Canis familiaris, have been shown capable of finding hidden food by following pointing gestures made with different parts of the human body. However, previous studies have reported that hand-reared wolves, C. lupus, fail to locate hidden food in response to similar points in the absence of extensive training. The failure of wolves to perform this task has led to the proposal that the ability to understand others' intentions is a derived character in dogs, not present in the ancestral population (wolves). Here we show that wolves, given the right rearing environment and daily interaction with humans, can use momentary distal human pointing cues to find food without training, whereas dogs tested outdoors and dogs at an animal shelter do not follow the same human points. In line with past studies, pet dogs tested indoors were successful in following these points. We also show that the reported failure of wolves in some past studies may be due to differences in the testing environment. Our findings indicate that domestication is not a prerequisite for human-like social cognition in canids, and show the need for additional research on the role of rearing conditions and environmental factors in the development of higher-level cognitive abilities.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0003-3472	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4964
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	Author	Uchiyama, H.; Ohtani, N.; Ohta, M.
	Title	Three-dimensional analysis of horse and human gaits in therapeutic riding			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2011	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	135	Issue	4	Pages	271-276
	Keywords	Equine-facilitated interventions; Horse gait; Human gait; Three-dimensional analysis; Horse riding
	Abstract	Therapeutic horse riding or hippotherapy is used as an intervention for treating individuals with mental and physical disabilities. Equine-assisted interventions are based on the hypothesis that the movement of the horse's pelvis during horseback riding resembles human ambulation, and thus provides motor and sensory inputs similar to those received during human walking. However, this hypothesis has not been investigated quantitatively and qualitatively. This study aimed to verify the hypothesis by conducting a three-dimensional analysis of the horse's movements while walking and human ambulation. Using four sets of equipments, we analysed the acceleration patterns of walking in 50 healthy humans and 11 horses. In addition, we analysed the exercise intensity by comparing the heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure of 127 healthy individuals before and after walking and horse riding. The acceleration data series of the stride phase of horse walking were compared with those of human walking, and the frequencies (in Hz) were analysed by Fast Fourier transform. The acceleration curves of human walking overlapped with those of horse walking, with the frequency band of human walking corresponding with that of horse walking. Exercise intensity, as measured by the heart rate and breathing rate, was not significantly different between horse riding and human walking. The levels of diastolic blood pressure were slightly higher during horse riding than during walking, but were lower during both conditions compared with those in normal conditions (P < 0.01). The present study shows that, although not completely matched, the accelerations of the horse and human walking are comparable quantitatively and qualitatively. Horse riding at a walking gait could generate motor and sensory inputs similar to those produced by human walking, and thus could provide optimum benefits to persons with ambulatory difficulties.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0168-1591	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5488
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	Author	Tyler, S.J.
	Title	The behaviour and social organisation of the new Forest ponies			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1972	Publication	Animal Behaviour Monograph	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav. Monogr.
	Volume	5	Issue	2	Pages	85-196
	Keywords
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @; Equine Behaviour @ team @ room B 3.029			Serial	719
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	Author	Tomasello, M.; Hare, B.; Fogleman, T.
	Title	The ontogeny of gaze following in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, and rhesus macaques, Macaca mulatta			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2001	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	61	Issue	2	Pages	335-343
	Keywords
	Abstract	Primates follow the gaze direction of conspecifics to outside objects. We followed the ontogeny of this social-cognitive skill for two species: rhesus macaques and chimpanzees. In the first two experiments, using both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design, we exposed individuals of different ages to a human looking in a specified direction. Rhesus infants first began reliably to follow the direction of this gaze at the end of the early infancy period, at about 5.5 months of age. Chimpanzees did not reliably follow human gaze until 3-4 years; this corresponds to the latter part of the late infancy period for this species. In the third experiment we exposed individuals of the same two species to a human repeatedly looking to the same location (with no special object at that location) to see if subjects would learn to ignore the looks. Only adults of the two species diminished their gaze-following behaviour over trials. This suggests that in the period between infancy and adulthood individuals of both species come to integrate their gaze-following skills with their more general social-cognitive knowledge about other animate beings and their behaviour, and so become able to deploy their gaze-following skills in a more flexible manner.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
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	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	596
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	Author	Tomasello, M.; Hare, B.; Agnetta, B.
	Title	Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, follow gaze direction geometrically			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	58	Issue	4	Pages	769-777
	Keywords
	Abstract	Two experiments on chimpanzee gaze following are reported. In the first, chimpanzee subjects watched as a human experimenter looked around various types of barriers. The subjects looked around each of the barriers more when the human had done so than in a control condition (in which the human looked in another direction). In the second experiment, chimpanzees watched as a human looked towards the back of their cage. As they turned to follow the human's gaze a distractor object was presented. The chimpanzees looked at the distractor while still following the human's gaze to the back of the cage. These two experiments effectively disconfirm the low-level model of chimpanzee gaze following in which it is claimed that upon seeing another animate being's gaze direction chimpanzees simply turn in that direction and look around for something interesting. Rather, they support the hypothesis that chimpanzees follow the gaze direction of other animate beings geometrically to specific locations, in much the same way as human infants. The degree to which chimpanzees have a mentalistic interpretation of the gaze and/or visual experience of others is still an open question.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	587
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	Author	Tomasello, M.; Call, J.; Hare, B.
	Title	Five primate species follow the visual gaze of conspecifics			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1998	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	55	Issue	4	Pages	1063-1069
	Keywords
	Abstract	Individuals from five primate species were tested experimentally for their ability to follow the visual gaze of conspecifics to an outside object. Subjects were from captive social groups of chimpanzees,Pan troglodytes, sooty mangabeys,Cercocebus atys torquatus, rhesus macaques,Macaca mulatta, stumptail macaques,M. arctoides, and pigtail macaques,M. nemestrina. Experimental trials consisted of an experimenter inducing one individual to look at food being displayed, and then observing the reaction of another individual (the subject) that was looking at that individual (not the food). Control trials consisted of an experimenter displaying the food in an identical manner when the subject was alone. Individuals from all species reliably followed the gaze of conspecifics, looking to the food about 80% of the time in experimental trials, compared with about 20% of the time in control trials. Results are discussed in terms of both the proximate mechanisms that might be involved and the adaptive functions that might be served by gaze-following.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	592
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	Author	Todd, I.A.; Kacelnik, A.
	Title	Psychological mechanisms and the Marginal Value Theorem: dynamics of scalar memory for travel time			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1993	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	46	Issue	4	Pages	765-775
	Keywords
	Abstract	Abstract. The relation between memory for travel time and foraging decisions was studied experimentally. The temporal properties of two environments with patchily distributed food were simulated in the laboratory using pigeons, Columba livia, as subjects. The two environments differed in mean travel time, while the coefficient of variation of travel time and the decelerated function relating cumulative food gain to time in the patch were held constant within and between environments. Each environment contained a uniform mixture of five travel times experienced in a random order. Two of the five travel times were common in both environments. Effects of travel time were studied by comparing prey collected per patch visit (PPV) after various travel times within each environment, and by comparing patch exploitation after equal travel times between environments. Within the environment with long mean travel time (LMT) PPV was positively correlated with the last and the penultimate travel times but not with travel times before that. The increase in PPV per second of last travel time was six times greater than the increase per second of penultimate travel time, implying very steep memory discounting. In the environment with short mean travel time (SMT), there was no correlation between PPV and previous travel times. However, comparisons between environments of visits following travel times common to both environments (thus removing the effect of the last travel time) showed that substantially more prey were taken after equal travel times in the LMT than in the SMT environment. This difference cannot be accounted for by the within-environment effect of penultimate travel time, implying that there is a different, less steeply devalued, effect of the mixture of travel times. A model of information processing based on combining Scalar Expectancy Theory with the predictions of rate maximization under the Marginal Value Theorem is presented. The model can approximate the results obtained in this and previous experiments and provides a framework for further analysis of memory mechanisms of foraging behaviour.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number				Serial	2111
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	Author	Tilson, R.L.; Sweeny, K.A.; Binczik, G.A.; Reindl, N.J.
	Title	Buddies and bullies: Social structure of a bachelor group of Przewalski horses			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1988	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	21	Issue	1-2	Pages	169-185
	Keywords
	Abstract	The Minnesota Zoological Garden established a bachelor (i.e. all-male) group of 8 Przewalski horses (Equus przewalskii) in 1984. Possible methods for mixing males emerged through preliminary introductions and review of the relevant literature. These included: (1) grouping colts (<=3 years old) after removing them from their natal bands; (2) introducing adult stallions to colts in spacious, controlled environments to reduce the risk of combat-related injury or death associated with largely unpredictable adult temperament; (3) introducing more than 1 animal at a time to established groups. Based on the frequency and orientation of agonistic interactions observed among the bachelors, a linear dominance hierarchy was discerned among the 4 adult stallions; all 4 colts were determined to be of equally low or seemingly non-ranking status. Social rank among the adults was most influenced by individual temperament, and contention for rank was limited almost exclusively to the 3 lower-ranking stallions; the alpha male participated in 73% of all agonistic interactions observed, but was identified as the recipient in less than 3% of these interactions. Intra-band associations were detected in the bachelor group. The most prevalent of these was among the 4 colts, found together in over 70% of the observations. Other affinities commonly observed were between the colts (as a sub-group) and different stallions. The dominant stallion, the colts' most frequent companion, actively discouraged the 3 lower-ranking stallions from associating with the colts. Further, the colts were subjected to significantly fewer agonistic behaviors than the non-alpha stallions (per colt=1.05+/-0.24 h-1; per non-alpha stallion=2.01+/-0.04 h-1). These findings support the hypothesis developed by other workers for ungulates that young bachelors are sheltered from aggression by association with an alpha male. With one exception, adult associations were rarely noted. Although combat-related injuries (superficial wounds and temporary lameness) were common among the bachelors, few required medical attention. No permanent disabilities or deaths have occurred since the group's inception. The existence of social organization and intra-band associations in the bachelor group support the suggestion that such groups were once a natural part of this species' social milieu. Bachelor groups are therefore recommended as an ethologically sound, space- and cost-effective means of managing “surplus” (i.e. non-harem) male Przewalski horses.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	781
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	Author	Thouless, C.R.; Guinness, F.E.
	Title	Conflict between red deer hinds: the winner always wins			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1986	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	34	Issue	4	Pages	1166-1171
	Keywords
	Abstract	Dominance relations between free-living, female red deer (hinds) (Cervus elaphus L.) on the Isle of Rhum, Scotland, were investigated. Most interactions were won by the older hind of the pair and this was the case even when both individuals had reached full body size. The younger hind was more likely to be the winner if the conflict was escalated or if the two hinds were strangers, in which case escalation was more frequent than usual. When outside their normal home range, older hinds were much more likely to lose, and younger ones more likely to win, than usual. These results can be best explained by the hinds using previous experience as a cue for conventional resolution of conflict, with the result that dominance relationships established early in life are perpetuated. No such cue is available if the hinds have not previously met.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
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	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	868
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	Author	Thouless, C.R.
	Title	Feeding competition between grazing red deer hinds			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1990	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	40	Issue	1	Pages	105-111
	Keywords
	Abstract	The effect of social rank on the feeding behaviour of female red deer, Cervus elaphus L., on the Isle of Rhum, Scotland, was investigated. Hinds were less likely to approach and more likely to leave the vicinity of other individuals if these hinds were dominant to them. Movements away by subordinates were more likely to involve a break from feeding. Feeding rate, as measured by bite rate, increased with distance from dominant neighbours, but was unaffected by the distance to subordinates. It appears that aggressive interactions had little direct effect on access to food. Instead, it is suggested that feeding competition in red deer hinds is largely a passive process, operating through the avoidance of conflict by subordinates.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4267
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