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Eisgruber, H., & Stolle, F. A. (1992). [Clostridia in carcasses and fresh meat--a literature review]. Zentralbl Veterinarmed B, 39(10), 746–754.
Abstract: Clostridia are of large clinical importance as well as in the field of food hygiene, where they are responsible for spoilage but they also have a certain significance as food poisoning organisms. Information on the ecology of Clostridia in samples of deep muscle tissue of slaughtered animals is insufficient. This article is intended to increase the knowledge on the occurrence of different Clostridia species in slaughtered animals. The main emphasis is put on the significance of clostridia in meat hygiene. The theoretical basis of the so called original content of microorganisms (intrinsic bacteria), the factors and pathways of Clostridia spreading in muscles and organs are demonstrated.
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Bazovska, S., Awad-Masalmeh, M., Kmety, E., & Spalekova, M. (1992). [Legionella antibodies in domestic animals]. Cesk Epidemiol Mikrobiol Imunol, 41(5), 268–273.
Abstract: Serological examination of 420 domestic animals for the presence of antilegionella antibodies indicates their high exposure to legionellae. On examination by the microagglutination reaction with a serum dilution of 1:64 or more the highest positive values were recorded in horses which reacted with antigens of L. pneumophila 1-14 in 36.2% and with antigens of another 19 types of legionellae in 47.8%. In pigs positive values recorded in 16.2% and in 21.1%; in cattle in 3.8% and 29.5%, in sheep in 7.5% and 11.3% and laboratory rabbits were quite negative. The importance of these findings with regard to the possible role of animals in the ecology of legionellae is obscure.
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Beveridge, W. I. (1993). Unravelling the ecology of influenza A virus. Hist Philos Life Sci, 15(1), 23–32.
Abstract: For 20 years after the influenza A virus was discovered in the early 1930s, it was believed to be almost exclusively a human virus. But in the 1950s closely related viruses were discovered in diseases of horses, pigs and birds. Subsequently influenza A viruses were found to occur frequently in many species of birds, particularly ducks, usually without causing disease. Researchers showed that human and animal strains can hybridise thus producing new strains. Such hybrids may be the cause of pandemics in man. Most pandemics have started in China or eastern Russia where many people are in intimate association with animals. This situation provides a breeding ground for new strains of influenza A virus.
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Pere, M. C. (1995). Maternal and fetal blood levels of glucose, lactate, fructose, and insulin in the conscious pig. J. Anim Sci., 73(10), 2994–2999.
Abstract: To study nutrition and metabolism in the fetal pig, a chronic catheterization method was developed that allows blood sampling in arteries and veins, at both the umbilical and uterine sources, in the conscious, unstressed animal. A catheter was inserted in the fetal aorta through a femoral artery, and another one was introduced in the umbilical vein. A catheter was put in a femoral artery of the sow so that its end was in the abdominal aorta. A fourth catheter was placed in a uterine vein draining the fetoplacental unit studied. This procedure was applied to 18 Large White primiparous sows at 99 d of gestation. Blood samples were drawn simultaneously using the four catheters before a meal at 103 d of pregnancy, and glucose, insulin, lactate, and fructose were determinated. Glycemia was 2.5 times higher in the sow than in the fetus. The extraction coefficient of glucose by the fetus amounted to 14% of the umbilical supply. The insulin level in the fetal pig was very low ( < 5 microU/mL). Lactate and fructose seemed to originate from the placenta. Blood lactate was 2.6 times lower in the sow than in the fetus, and its extraction coefficient by the fetus amounted to 8%. Fructose in the fetal blood was 2.3 times higher than that of glucose. Fructose was not utilized by the pig fetus. The present results obtained in the fetal pig are comparable to the conclusions drawn from studies with other species.
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Swanson, J. C. (1995). Farm animal well-being and intensive production systems. J. Anim Sci., 73(9), 2744–2751.
Abstract: Animal welfare, or well-being, is a social issue with ethical, scientific, political, and aesthetic properties. Answering questions about the welfare of animals requires scientific definition, assessment, solutions, and public acceptance. With respect to the actual well-being of the animal, most issues are centered on how the animal “feels” when managed within a specific level of confinement, during special agricultural practices (e.g., tail docking, beak trimming, etc.) and handling. Questions of this nature may require exploration of animal cognition, motivation, perception, and emotional states in addition to more commonly recognized indicators of well-being. Several general approaches have emerged for solving problems concerning animal well-being in intensive production systems: environmental, genetic, and therapeutic. Environmental approaches involve modifying existing systems to accommodate specific welfare concerns or development of alternative systems. Genetic approaches involve changing the behavioral and (or) physiological nature of the animal to reduce or eliminate behaviors that are undesirable within intensive system. Therapeutic approaches of a physical (tail docking, beak trimming) and physiological (drug and nutritional therapy) nature bring both concern and promise with regard to the reduction of confinement stress. Finally, the recent focus on commodity quality assurance programs may indirectly provide benefits for animal well-being. Although research in the area of animal well-being will provide important information for better animal management, handling, care, and the physical design of intensive production systems there is still some uncertainty regarding public acceptance. The aesthetics of modern intensive production systems may have as much to do with public acceptance as with science.
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Turner, J. W. J., Liu, I. K., & Kirkpatrick, J. F. (1996). Remotely delivered immunocontraception in free-roaming feral burros (Equus asinus). J Reprod Fertil, 107(1), 31–35.
Abstract: Regulation of local overpopulations of free-roaming feral equids is in demand worldwide for ecological balance and habitat preservation. Contraceptive vaccines have proven effective in feral horses, which breed seasonally, but no data are available for equids such as the burro, which is reproductively active all year round. In the present study, 27 individually identified female feral burros (Equus asinus) roaming free in Virgin Islands National Park (St John, US Virgin Islands; Lesser Antilles) were remotely treated with pig zonae pellucidae (PZP) vaccine. Between January and May, 16 burros were darted with a 1 ml emulsion of PZP plus Freund's adjuvant. Ten to twelve months later each treated burro was given a single booster injection of PZP plus adjuvant to maintain contraception through a second year. Eleven adult untreated jennies served as controls. Beginning one year after initial vaccination, these burros were monitored for pregnancy and foal production. Collection of data to determine treatment effect was not begun until 12 months after initial treatment to ensure that pregnancies existing before vaccination were not included. Pregnancy was assessed using previously validated methods for steroid metabolite measurement in fresh faecal samples. None of the PZP-treated burros produced foals between 0 and 12 months after the last inoculation. One PZP-treated burro tested positive for pregnancy at 10 months after the final inoculation. During this same period, six of 11 untreated burros tested pregnancy-positive, and four were observed with foals. There was no difference in pregnancy rates among treated, control and randomly sampled jennies between 12 and 24 months after the last inoculation. The results demonstrate that, in free-roaming feral burros that are reproductively active all year round: (1) burros can be accessed for remotely delivered PZP vaccination; (2) PZP contraception is effective; (3) PZP contraception is reversible; and (4) pregnancy can be reliably detected by faecal steroid analysis.
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Puppe, B. (1996). [Social dominance and rank relationships in domestic pigs: a critical review]. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 109(11-12), 457–464.
Abstract: Viewing dominance as an attribute of repeated agonistic interactions between two individuals, the present paper reviews theoretical approaches towards concepts of dominance, methods of measurement, and basic principles and problems connected with social dominance in domestic pigs. Domestic pigs are able to establish social organization structures during all stages of their ontogeny. According to definition, dominance relationships occur when a consistent asymmetry of the result of dyadic agonistic interactions can be assessed. This must not necessarily be connected immediately with a better availability of resources, or a high stability of existing dominance relationships, or a functional definition of dominance. When sociometric characteristics are calculated, it seems to be appropriate to use them for different levels of a biological system (individual, individual pair, group). Investigations of social behaviour and dominance in farm animals should take into account that mechanisms of social behaviour in confined environments are often carried out in parts only. Connections of the dominance concept with other concepts of behavioural regulation should be theoretically considered and further investigated by experimental studies.
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Kirkpatrick, J. F., Turner, J. W. J., Liu, I. K., Fayrer-Hosken, R., & Rutberg, A. T. (1997). Case studies in wildlife immunocontraception: wild and feral equids and white-tailed deer. Reprod Fertil Dev, 9(1), 105–110.
Abstract: Non-lethal management methods are required for wild equids that are protected by law and for deer inhabiting areas where lethal controls are not legal or safe. Single or multiple inoculations of porcine zona pellucida (PZP) vaccine have been delivered to wild horses and deer by means of darts. Contraceptive efficacy in horses after two inoculations ranged from 90% to 100%, and after a single inoculation ranged from 19% to 28%. Mares given a controlled-release form of the vaccine had foaling rates ranging from 7% to 20%. No detectable changes in social organization or behaviours among treated horses occurred. Contraceptive effects were reversible after 4 consecutive years of treatment but 5-7 years of treatment resulted in ovulation failure and decreased urinary oestrogen concentrations. Among deer, two inoculations were 70-100% effective in preventing fawns, but one inoculation yielded a contraceptive efficacy of < or = 20%, with pregnancies occurring late in the breeding season; a single annual booster inoculation reduced fertility to 20% in the second year. Energy costs of extended breeding seasons were less than those resulting from pregnancy. After two years of treatment, ovaries appeared normal. These studies suggest that PZP immunocontraception can be successfully applied to certain free-roaming populations of wild horses and deer.
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Kida, H. (1997). [Ecology of influenza viruses in animals and the mechanism of emergence of new pandemic strains]. Nippon Rinsho, 55(10), 2521–2526.
Abstract: Ecological studies on influenza viruses revealed that the hemagglutinin genes are introduced into new pandemic strains from viruses circulating in migratory ducks through domestic ducks and pigs in southern China. Experimental infection of pigs with 38 avian influenza virus strains with H1-H13 hemagglutinins showed that at least one strain of each HA subtype replicated in the upper respiratory tract of pigs. Co-infection of pigs with a swine virus and with an avian virus generated reassortant viruses. The results indicate that avian viruses of any subtype can contribute genes in the generation of reassortants. Virological surveillance revealed that influenza viruses in waterfowl reservoir are perpetuated year-by-year in the frozen lake water while ducks are absent.
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Kirkpatrick, J. F., & Turner, A. (2002). Reversibility of action and safety during pregnancy of immunization against porcine zona pellucida in wild mares (Equus caballus). Reprod Suppl, 60, 197–202.
Abstract: Contraceptive management of publicly valued wildlife species requires safeguards to ensure that these populations are preserved in a healthy state. In addition, reversibility of contraceptive effects and safety in pregnant animals are major concerns. A population of wild horses has been immunized against porcine zona pellucida (PZP) over a 12 year period on Assateague Island National Seashore, MD (ASIS). Mares initially received one or two 65 microg inoculations and once a year 65 microg booster inoculations, all delivered by dart. All young mares aged > 2 years were treated with PZP for 3 consecutive years regardless of whether they have bred successfully and they were then removed from treatment until they had foaled. All mares vaccinated for 1 or 2 consecutive years became fertile again and 69% of mares treated for 3 consecutive years returned to fertility. All five mares treated for 4 or 5 consecutive years have also returned to fertility, but over longer periods of time. Mares treated for 7 consecutive years have not returned to fertility, but several, while still infertile, have started ovulating again. There was no difference in survival rates between foals born to treated and untreated mares, and PZP treatment of pregnant mares did not affect subsequent fertility of their female offspring.
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