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Author |
Shoshani, J.; Kupsky, W.J.; Marchant, G.H. |
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Title |
Elephant brain. Part I: gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Brain Research Bulletin |
Abbreviated Journal |
Brain Res Bull |
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Volume  |
70 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
124-157 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Brain/*anatomy & histology/blood supply/*physiology; Cats; Chinchilla; Elephants/*anatomy & histology/*physiology; Equidae; *Evolution; Female; Guinea Pigs; Haplorhini; Humans; Hyraxes; Male; Pan troglodytes; Sheep; Wolves |
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We report morphological data on brains of four African, Loxodonta africana, and three Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, and compare findings to literature. Brains exhibit a gyral pattern more complex and with more numerous gyri than in primates, humans included, and in carnivores, but less complex than in cetaceans. Cerebral frontal, parietal, temporal, limbic, and insular lobes are well developed, whereas the occipital lobe is relatively small. The insula is not as opercularized as in man. The temporal lobe is disproportionately large and expands laterally. Humans and elephants have three parallel temporal gyri: superior, middle, and inferior. Hippocampal sizes in elephants and humans are comparable, but proportionally smaller in elephant. A possible carotid rete was observed at the base of the brain. Brain size appears to be related to body size, ecology, sociality, and longevity. Elephant adult brain averages 4783 g, the largest among living and extinct terrestrial mammals; elephant neonate brain averages 50% of its adult brain weight (25% in humans). Cerebellar weight averages 18.6% of brain (1.8 times larger than in humans). During evolution, encephalization quotient has increased by 10-fold (0.2 for extinct Moeritherium, approximately 2.0 for extant elephants). We present 20 figures of the elephant brain, 16 of which contain new material. Similarities between human and elephant brains could be due to convergent evolution; both display mosaic characters and are highly derived mammals. Humans and elephants use and make tools and show a range of complex learning skills and behaviors. In elephants, the large amount of cerebral cortex, especially in the temporal lobe, and the well-developed olfactory system, structures associated with complex learning and behavioral functions in humans, may provide the substrate for such complex skills and behavior. |
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Department of Biology, University of Asmara, P.O. Box 1220, Asmara, Eritrea (Horn of Africa). hezy@bio.uoa.edu.er |
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0361-9230 |
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PMID:16782503 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2623 |
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Author |
Sterling, E.J.; Povinelli, D.J. |
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Title |
Tool use, aye-ayes, and sensorimotor intelligence |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1999 |
Publication |
Folia Primatologica; International Journal of Primatology |
Abbreviated Journal |
Folia Primatol (Basel) |
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70 |
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1 |
Pages |
8-16 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Feeding Behavior; Female; *Intelligence; Male; Problem Solving; *Psychomotor Performance; Strepsirhini/*physiology/psychology |
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Abstract |
Humans, chimpanzees, capuchins and aye-ayes all display an unusually high degree of encephalization and diverse omnivorous extractive foraging. It has been suggested that the high degree of encephalization in aye-ayes may be the result of their diverse, omnivorous extractive foraging behaviors. In combination with certain forms of tool use, omnivorous extractive foraging has been hypothesized to be linked to higher levels of sensorimotor intelligence (stages 5 or 6). Although free-ranging aye-ayes have not been observed to use tools directly in the context of their extractive foraging activities, they have recently been reported to use lianas as tools in a manner that independently suggests that they may possess stage 5 or 6 sensorimotor intelligence. Although other primate species which display diverse, omnivorous extractive foraging have been tested for sensorimotor intelligence, aye-ayes have not. We report a test of captive aye-ayes' comprehension of tool use in a situation designed to simulate natural conditions. The results support the view that aye-ayes do not achieve stage 6 comprehension of tool use, but rather may use trial-and-error learning to develop tool-use behaviors. Other theories for aye-aye encephalization are considered. |
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Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Gottingen, Germany |
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0015-5713 |
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PMID:10050062 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4178 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R. |
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Title |
Selective and divided attention in animals |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Behavioural processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Process. |
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69 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
1-15 |
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Keywords |
Animals; *Attention; *Behavior, Animal; *Discrimination (Psychology); *Field Dependence-Independence; *Psychological Theory |
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This article reviews some of the research on attentional processes in animals. In the traditional approach to selective attention, it is proposed that in addition to specific response attachments, animals also learn something about the dimension along which the stimuli fall (e.g., hue, brightness, or line orientation). More recently, there has been an attempt to find animal analogs to methodologies originally applied to research with humans. One line of research has been directed to the question of whether animals can locate a target among distracters faster if they are prepared for the presentation of the target (search image and priming). In the study of search image, the target is typically a food item and the cue consists of previous trials on which the same target is presented. In research on priming effects, the cue is typically different from the target but is a good predictor of its occurrence. The study of preattentive processes shows that perceptually, certain stimuli stand out from distracters better than others, depending not only on characteristics of the target relative to the distracters, but also on relations among the distracters. Research on divided attention is examined with the goal of determining whether an animal can process two elements of a compound sample with the same efficiency as one. Taken together, the reviewed research indicates that animals are capable of centrally (not just peripherally) attending to selective aspects of a stimulus display. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, 202B Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA. Zentall@uky.edu |
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0376-6357 |
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PMID:15795066 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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224 |
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Author |
Shettleworth, S.J. |
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Title |
Taking the best for learning |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Behavioural processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Process. |
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Volume |
69 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
147-9; author reply 159-63 |
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*Algorithms; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Decision Making; Evolution; *Learning; *Models, Theoretical |
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Examples of how animals learn when multiple, sometimes redundant, cues are present provide further examples not considered by Hutchinson and Gigerenzer that seem to fit the principle of taking the best. “The best” may the most valid cue in the present circumstances; evolution may also produce species-specific biases to use the most functionally relevant cues. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada M5S 3G3. shettle@psych.utoronto.ca |
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0376-6357 |
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PMID:15845301 |
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no |
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Call Number |
refbase @ user @ |
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361 |
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Author |
Heyes, C.M. |
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Title |
Social learning in animals: categories and mechanisms |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
1994 |
Publication |
Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |
Abbreviated Journal |
Biol. Rev. |
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Volume |
69 |
Issue |
2 |
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207-231 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Conditioning (Psychology); *Learning; Reinforcement (Psychology); *Social Behavior |
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There has been relatively little research on the psychological mechanisms of social learning. This may be due, in part, to the practice of distinguishing categories of social learning in relation to ill-defined mechanisms (Davis, 1973; Galef, 1988). This practice both makes it difficult to identify empirically examples of different types of social learning, and gives the false impression that the mechanisms responsible for social learning are clearly understood. It has been proposed that social learning phenomena be subsumed within the categorization scheme currently used by investigators of asocial learning. This scheme distinguishes categories of learning according to observable conditions, namely, the type of experience that gives rise to a change in an animal (single stimulus vs. stimulus-stimulus relationship vs. response-reinforcer relationship), and the type of behaviour in which this change is detected (response evocation vs. learnability) (Rescorla, 1988). Specifically, three alignments have been proposed: (i) stimulus enhancement with single stimulus learning, (ii) observational conditioning with stimulus-stimulus learning, or Pavlovian conditioning, and (iii) observational learning with response-reinforcer learning, or instrumental conditioning. If, as the proposed alignments suggest, the conditions of social and asocial learning are the same, there is some reason to believe that the mechanisms underlying the two sets of phenomena are also the same. This is so if one makes the relatively uncontroversial assumption that phenomena which occur under similar conditions tend to be controlled by similar mechanisms. However, the proposed alignments are intended to be a set of hypotheses, rather than conclusions, about the mechanisms of social learning; as a basis for further research in which animal learning theory is applied to social learning. A concerted attempt to apply animal learning theory to social learning, to find out whether the same mechanisms are responsible for social and asocial learning, could lead both to refinements of the general theory, and to a better understanding of the mechanisms of social learning. There are precedents for these positive developments in research applying animal learning theory to food aversion learning (e.g. Domjan, 1983; Rozin & Schull, 1988) and imprinting (e.g. Bolhuis, de Vox & Kruit, 1990; Hollis, ten Cate & Bateson, 1991). Like social learning, these phenomena almost certainly play distinctive roles in the antogeny of adaptive behaviour, and they are customarily regarded as 'special kinds' of learning (Shettleworth, 1993).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS) |
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Department of Psychology, University College London |
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1464-7931 |
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PMID:8054445 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
708 |
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Author |
Pritchard, J.C.; Lindberg, A.C.; Main, D.C.J.; Whay, H.R. |
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Title |
Assessment of the welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys, using health and behaviour parameters |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Preventive Veterinary Medicine |
Abbreviated Journal |
Prev Vet Med |
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Volume |
69 |
Issue |
3-4 |
Pages |
265-283 |
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*Animal Welfare; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Developing Countries; *Equidae; Female; Health; Male |
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Abstract |
Working animals provide an essential transport resource in developing countries worldwide. Many of these animals are owned by poor people and work in harsh environments, so their welfare is a cause for concern. A protocol was developed to assess the welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys in urban and peri-urban areas, using direct observation of health and behaviour parameters. In this study, 4903 animals used for draught, pack and ridden work in Afghanistan, Egypt, India, Jordan and Pakistan were assessed between December 2002 and April 2003. The data showed that donkeys were more likely than mules or horses to demonstrate avoidance or aggressive behaviour towards an observer, while horses were most likely to make a friendly approach. Fewer than 8% of working equines had abnormal mucous membranes, ectoparasites or poor coat condition. Body lesions occurred predominantly in the areas of the breast/shoulder, withers and girth in all three species, with mules having the highest prevalence of lesions in these areas (22.5, 21.3 and 28.4%, respectively). Among horses and donkeys, the prevalence of these lesions was influenced by the type of work carried out. Lesions on the head, neck, ribs, flank and tail base were seen in less than 10% of animals. Across all three species approximately 70% of animals were thin, having a body condition score (BCS) of 2 or less on a scale of 1-5 (1, very thin; 5, very fat) and more horses were in very thin condition (BCS 1) than mules or donkeys. Over 75% of animals demonstrated limb deformities and abnormalities of gait. The results of this study are being used as the initial stage of a long-term strategy to inform priorities for welfare interventions in working equines and to establish a welfare benchmark. Subsequent stages will rank the welfare concerns identified, assess the contributing risk factors and implement specific interventions to address these risks. Following intervention, success in improving welfare will be measured by repetition of this protocol and comparison with the benchmark. |
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Address |
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK. joy.pritchard@bristol.ac.uk |
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0167-5877 |
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PMID:15907574 |
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1889 |
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Krzak, W.E.; Gonyou, H.W.; Lawrence, L.M. |
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Title |
Wood chewing by stabled horses: diurnal pattern and effects of exercise |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1991 |
Publication |
Journal of Animal Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Anim Sci. |
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Volume |
69 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
1053-1058 |
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Keywords |
Animal Feed; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; *Circadian Rhythm; Female; Horses/*physiology; Male; *Mastication; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Sodium Chloride/administration & dosage; Videotape Recording; Wood |
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Nine yearling horses, stabled in individual stalls, were used in a trial to determine the diurnal pattern of wood chewing and the effects of exercise on this behavior. The trial was a Latin square design conducted over three 2-wk periods during which each horse was exposed to each of the three following treatments: 1) no exercise (NE), 2) exercise after the morning feeding (AM), and 3) exercise in the afternoon (PM). Horses were fed a complete pelleted feed in the morning and both pelleted feed and long-stemmed hay in the afternoon. Exercise consisted of 45 min on a mechanical walker followed by 45 min in a paddock with bare soil. Each stall was equipped with two untreated spruce boards during each period for wood chewing. Wood chewing was evaluated by videotaping each horse for 22 h during each period, determining the weight and volume of the boards before and after each period, and by visual appraisal of the boards. Intake of trace mineralized salt was also measured. Wood chewing occurred primarily between 2200 and 1200. All measures of wood chewing were correlated when totals for the entire 6 wk were analyzed. When analysis was performed on 2-wk values, videotape results were not correlated with volume or weight loss of boards. Horses chewed more when on the NE treatment (511 s/d) than when on AM or PM (57 and 136 s/d, respectively; P less than .05). Salt intake tended to be greater for NE than for the other treatments (P less than .10).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) |
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Dept. of Anim. Sci., University of Illinois, Urbana 61801 |
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0021-8812 |
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PMID:2061237 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1949 |
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Dunbar, R.I.M.; McAdam, M.R.; O'connell, S. |
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Mental rehearsal in great apes (Pan troglodytes and Pongo pygmaeus) and children |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Behavioural Processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav. Process. |
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Volume |
69 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
323-330 |
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Algorithms; Animals; Child; Child, Preschool; Food; Frontal Lobe/anatomy & histology/physiology; Humans; *Imagination; Pan troglodytes; Pongo pygmaeus; Problem Solving/*physiology; Psychomotor Performance/physiology; Reward |
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The ability to rehearse possible future courses of action in the mind is an important feature of advanced social cognition in humans, and the “social brain” hypothesis implies that it might also be a feature of primate social cognition. We tested two chimpanzees, six orangutans and 63 children aged 3-7 years on a set of four puzzle boxes, half of which were presented with an opportunity to observe the box before being allowed to open it (“prior view”), the others being given without an opportunity to examine the boxes before handling them (“no prior view”). When learning effects are partialled out, puzzle boxes in the “prior view” condition were opened significantly faster than boxes given in the “no prior view” condition by the children, but not by either of the great apes. The three species differ significantly in the speed with which they opened boxes in the “no prior view” condition. The three species' performance on this task was a function of relative frontal lobe volume, suggesting that it may be possible to identify quantitative neuropsychological differences between species. |
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Evolutionary Psychology Research Group, School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Biosciences Building, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK. rimd@liv.ac.uk |
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0376-6357 |
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PMID:15896530 |
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2097 |
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Duncan, I.J.; Petherick, J.C. |
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The implications of cognitive processes for animal welfare |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1991 |
Publication |
Journal of Animal Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Anim Sci. |
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69 |
Issue |
12 |
Pages |
5017-5022 |
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*Animal Welfare; Animals; Animals, Domestic/*psychology; *Cognition |
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In general, codes that have been designed to safeguard the welfare of animals emphasize the importance of providing an environment that will ensure good health and a normal physiological and physical state, that is, they emphasize the animals' physical needs. If mental needs are mentioned, they are always relegated to secondary importance. The argument is put forward here that animal welfare is dependent solely on the cognitive needs of the animals concerned. In general, if these cognitive needs are met, they will protect the animals' physical needs. It is contended that in the few cases in which they do not safeguard the physical needs, it does not matter from a welfare point of view. The human example is given of being ill. It is argued that welfare is only adversely affected when a person feels ill, knows that he or she is ill, or even thinks that he or she is ill, all of which processes are cognitive ones. The implications for welfare of animals possessing certain cognitive abilities are discussed. For example, the extent to which animals are aware of their internal state while performing behavior known to be indicative of so-called states of suffering, such as fear, frustration, and pain, will determine how much they are actually suffering. With careful experimentation it may be possible to determine how negative they feel these states to be. Similarly, the extent to which animals think about items or events absent from their immediate environment will determine how frustrated they are in the absence of the real item or event but in the presence of the cognitive representation. |
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University of Guelph, Canada |
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0021-8812 |
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PMID:1808195 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2753 |
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Author |
Curtis, S.E.; Stricklin, W.R. |
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Title |
The importance of animal cognition in agricultural animal production systems: an overview |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1991 |
Publication |
Journal of Animal Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
J. Anim Sci. |
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69 |
Issue |
12 |
Pages |
5001-5007 |
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*Agriculture; Animal Population Groups/*psychology; *Animal Welfare; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; *Cognition; Heat; Helplessness, Learned; Housing, Animal/standards; Immobilization; Nesting Behavior; Pain/psychology/veterinary |
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To describe and then fulfill agricultural animals' needs, we must learn more about their fundamental psychological and behavioral processes. How does this animal feel? Is that animal suffering? Will we ever be able to know these things? Scientists specializing in animal cognition say that there are numerous problems but that they can be overcome. Recognition by scientists of the notion of animal awareness has been increasing in recent years, because of the work of Griffin and others. Feeling, thinking, remembering, and imagining are cognitive processes that are factors in the economic and humane production of agricultural animals. It has been observed that the animal welfare debate depends on two controversial questions: Do animals have subjective feelings? If they do, can we find indicators that reveal them? Here, indirect behavioral analysis approaches must be taken. Moreover, the linear additivity of several stressor effects on a variety of animal traits suggests that some single phenomenon is acting as a “clearinghouse” for many or all of the stresses acting on an animal at any given time, and this phenomenon might be psychological stress. Specific situations animals may encounter in agricultural production settings are discussed with respect to the animals' subjective feelings. |
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University of Illinois, Urbana 61801 |
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Language |
English |
Summary Language |
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Original Title |
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ISSN |
0021-8812 |
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Notes |
PMID:1808193 |
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no |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
2754 |
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