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Author |
Preston, S.D.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title |
Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Behavioral and Brain Sciences |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behav Brain Sci |
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Volume |
25 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
1-20; discussion 20-71 |
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Keywords |
Adult; Animals; Child; Emotions/physiology; *Empathy; Evolution; Haplorhini; Helping Behavior; Humans; Mental Disorders/physiopathology/psychology; Morals; Personality Development; Phylogeny; Prefrontal Cortex/physiopathology; Socialization |
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Abstract |
There is disagreement in the literature about the exact nature of the phenomenon of empathy. There are emotional, cognitive, and conditioning views, applying in varying degrees across species. An adequate description of the ultimate and proximate mechanism can integrate these views. Proximately, the perception of an object's state activates the subject's corresponding representations, which in turn activate somatic and autonomic responses. This mechanism supports basic behaviors (e.g., alarm, social facilitation, vicariousness of emotions, mother-infant responsiveness, and the modeling of competitors and predators) that are crucial for the reproductive success of animals living in groups. The Perception-Action Model (PAM), together with an understanding of how representations change with experience, can explain the major empirical effects in the literature (similarity, familiarity, past experience, explicit teaching, and salience). It can also predict a variety of empathy disorders. The interaction between the PAM and prefrontal functioning can also explain different levels of empathy across species and age groups. This view can advance our evolutionary understanding of empathy beyond inclusive fitness and reciprocal altruism and can explain different levels of empathy across individuals, species, stages of development, and situations. |
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University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics, 2RCP-Neurology Clinic, Iowa City, IA 52242. stephanie-d-preston@uiowa.edu |
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0140-525X |
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PMID:12625087 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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181 |
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Author |
Singer, R.A.; Klein, E.D.; Zentall, T.R. |
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Title |
Use of a single-code/default strategy by pigeons to acquire duration sample discriminations |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Learning & behavior : a Psychonomic Society publication |
Abbreviated Journal |
Learn Behav |
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Volume |
34 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
340-347 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Columbidae; *Discrimination (Psychology); *Reaction Time; Retention (Psychology); *Signal Detection (Psychology) |
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Abstract |
Past evidence that pigeons may adopt a single-code/default strategy to solve duration sample discriminations may be attributable to the similarity between the intertrial interval (ITI) and the retention interval. The present experiments tested whether pigeons would adopt a single-code/default strategy when possible ITI-retention-interval ambiguity was eliminated and sample salience was increased. Previous studies of duration sample discriminations that have purported to show evidence for the use of a single-code/default coding strategy have used durations of 0, 2, and 10 sec (Zentall, Klein, and Singer, 2004). However, the results of Experiment 1 suggest that the use of a 0-sec sample may produce an artifact resulting in inadvertent present/absent sample matching. In Experiment 2, when pigeons were trained with three nonzero duration samples (2, 8, and 32 sec), clear evidence for the use of a single-code/default strategy was found. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA. rasing2@uky.edu |
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1543-4494 |
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PMID:17330523 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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215 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R.; Kaiser, D.H. |
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Title |
Interval timing with gaps: gap ambiguity as an alternative to temporal decay |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process |
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Volume |
31 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
484-486 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Behavior, Animal; Discrimination (Psychology)/*physiology; Memory/*physiology; Rats; Time Perception/*physiology |
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Abstract |
C. V. Buhusi, D. Perera, and W. H. Meck (2005) proposed a hypothesis of timing in rats to account for the results of experiments that have used the peak procedure with gaps. According to this hypothesis, the introduction of a gap causes the animal's memory for the pregap interval to passively decay (subjectively shorten) in direct proportion to the duration and salience of the gap. Thus, animals should pause with short, nonsalient gaps but should reset their clock with longer, salient gaps. The present authors suggest that the ambiguity of the gap (i.e., the similarity between the gap and the intertrial interval in both appearance and relative duration) causes the animal to actively reset the clock and prevents adequate assessments of the fate of timed intervals prior to the gap. Furthermore, when the intertrial interval is discriminable from the gap, the evidence suggests that timed intervals prior to the gap are not lost but are retained in memory. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA. zentall@uky.edu |
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0097-7403 |
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PMID:16248734 |
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no |
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Call Number |
refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
220 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R. |
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Title |
Action imitation in birds |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Learning & behavior : a Psychonomic Society publication |
Abbreviated Journal |
Learn Behav |
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Volume |
32 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
15-23 |
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Keywords |
Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; *Birds; *Imitative Behavior; Imprinting (Psychology); *Learning; Motivation; Psychological Theory; *Social Environment; *Social Facilitation; Vocalization, Animal |
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Abstract |
Action imitation, once thought to be a behavior almost exclusively limited to humans and the great apes, surprisingly also has been found in a number of bird species. Because imitation has been viewed by some psychologists as a form of intelligent behavior, there has been interest in how it is distributed among animal species. Although the mechanisms responsible for action imitation are not clear, we are now at least beginning to understand the conditions under which it occurs. In this article, I try to identify and differentiate the various forms of socially influenced behavior (species-typical social reactions, social effects on motivation, social effects on perception, socially influenced learning, and action imitation) and explain why it is important to differentiate imitation from other forms of social influence. I also examine some of the variables that appear to be involved in the occurrence of imitation. Finally, I speculate about why a number of bird species, but few mammal species, appear to imitate. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA. zentall@uky.edu |
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1543-4494 |
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Notes |
PMID:15161137 |
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no |
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Call Number |
refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
230 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R.; Klein, E.D.; Singer, R.A. |
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Title |
Evidence for detection of one duration sample and default responding to other duration samples by pigeons may result from an artifact of retention-test ambiguity |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process |
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Volume |
30 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
129-134 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Artifacts; Association Learning; Columbidae; *Discrimination Learning; *Recognition (Psychology); *Retention (Psychology); *Time Perception; *Transfer (Psychology) |
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Abstract |
S. C. Gaitan and J. T. Wixted (2000) proposed that when pigeons are trained on a conditional discrimination to associate 1 duration sample with 1 comparison and 2 other duration samples with a 2nd comparison, they detect only the single duration, and on trials involving either of the 2 other duration samples, they respond to the other comparison by default. In 2 experiments, the authors show instead that pigeons lend to treat the retention intervals (such as those used by Gaitan and Wixted) as intertrial intervals, and thus, they tend to treat all trials with a delay as 0-s sample trials. The authors tested this hypothesis by showing that divergent retention functions do not appear when the retention interval is discriminably different from the intertrial interval. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA. zentall@uky.edu |
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0097-7403 |
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PMID:15078122 |
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no |
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Call Number |
refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
232 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R.; Galizio, M.; Critchfied, T.S. |
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Title |
Categorization, concept learning, and behavior analysis: an introduction |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Anal Behav |
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Volume |
78 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
237-248 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Association Learning; *Concept Formation; *Discrimination Learning; Humans; Language |
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Abstract |
Categorization and concept learning encompass some of the most important aspects of behavior, but historically they have not been central topics in the experimental analysis of behavior. To introduce this special issue of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB), we define key terms; distinguish between the study of concepts and the study of concept learning; describe three types of concept learning characterized by the stimulus classes they yield; and briefly identify several other themes (e.g., quantitative modeling and ties to language) that appear in the literature. As the special issue demonstrates, a surprising amount and diversity of work is being conducted that either represents a behavior-analytic perspective or can inform or constructively challenge this perspective. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506, USA. zentall@pop.uky.edu |
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0022-5002 |
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PMID:12507002 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
236 |
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Author |
Kaiser, D.H.; Zentall, T.R.; Neiman, E. |
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Title |
Timing in pigeons: effects of the similarity between intertrial interval and gap in a timing signal |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process |
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Volume |
28 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
416-422 |
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Keywords |
Animals; *Attention; Columbidae; *Conditioning, Operant; Discrimination Learning; Mental Recall; Probability Learning; *Reinforcement (Psychology); *Reinforcement Schedule; Retention (Psychology); Time Factors; *Time Perception/physiology |
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Previous research suggests that when a fixed interval is interrupted (known as the gap procedure), pigeons tend to reset memory and start timing from 0 after the gap. However, because the ambient conditions of the gap typically have been the same as during the intertrial interval (ITI), ambiguity may have resulted. In the present experiment, the authors found that when ambient conditions during the gap were similar to the ITI, pigeons tended to reset memory, but when ambient conditions during the gap were different from the ITI, pigeons tended to stop timing, retain the duration of the stimulus in memory, and add to that time when the stimulus reappeared. Thus, when the gap was unambiguous, pigeons timed accurately. |
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Department of Psychology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858, USA. kaiserd@mail.ecu.edu |
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0097-7403 |
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PMID:12395499 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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238 |
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Author |
Akins, C.K.; Klein, E.D.; Zentall, T.R. |
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Title |
Imitative learning in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) using the bidirectional control procedure |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Animal learning & behavior |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim Learn Behav |
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Volume |
30 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
275-281 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Attention; Behavior, Animal; Coturnix; *Discrimination Learning; *Imitative Behavior; Male; Smell |
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Abstract |
In the bidirectional control procedure, observers are exposed to a conspecific demonstrator responding to a manipulandum in one of two directions (e.g., left vs. right). This procedure controls for socially mediated effects (the mere presence of a conspecific) and stimulus enhancement (attention drawn to a manipulandum by its movement), and it has the added advantage of being symmetrical (the two different responses are similar in topography). Imitative learning is demonstrated when the observers make the response in the direction that they observed it being made. Recently, however, it has been suggested that when such evidence is found with a predominantly olfactory animal, such as the rat, it may result artifactually from odor cues left on one side of the manipulandum by the demonstrator. In the present experiment, we found that Japanese quail, for which odor cues are not likely to play a role, also showed significant correspondence between the direction in which the demonstrator and the observer push a screen to gain access to reward. Furthermore, control quail that observed the screen move, when the movement of the screen was not produced by the demonstrator, did not show similar correspondence between the direction of screen movement observed and that performed by the observer. Thus, with the appropriate control, the bidirectional procedure appears to be useful for studying imitation in avian species. |
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University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA |
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0090-4996 |
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PMID:12391793 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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239 |
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Author |
Clement, T.S.; Zentall, T.R. |
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Title |
Second-order contrast based on the expectation of effort and reinforcement |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process |
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Volume |
28 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
64-74 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Columbidae; Discrimination Learning; Random Allocation; *Reinforcement (Psychology) |
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Pigeons prefer signals for reinforcement that require greater effort (or time) to obtain over those that require less effort to obtain (T. S. Clement, J. Feltus, D. H. Kaiser, & T. R. Zentall, 2000). Preference was attributed to contrast (or to the relatively greater improvement in conditions) produced by the appearance of the signal when it was preceded by greater effort. In Experiment 1, the authors of the present study demonstrated that the expectation of greater effort was sufficient to produce such a preference (a second-order contrast effect). In Experiments 2 and 3, low versus high probability of reinforcement was substituted for high versus low effort, respectively, with similar results. In Experiment 3, the authors found that the stimulus preference could be attributed to positive contrast (when the discriminative stimuli represented an improvement in the probability of reinforcement) and perhaps also negative contrast (when the discriminative stimuli represented reduction in the probability of reinforcement). |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA |
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0097-7403 |
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PMID:11868235 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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241 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R.; Clement, T.S. |
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Title |
Memory mechanisms in pigeons: evidence of base-rate neglect |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Journal of experimental psychology. Animal behavior processes |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process |
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Volume |
28 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
111-115 |
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Animals; Columbidae; Discrimination Learning; Memory/*physiology; Random Allocation; Reaction Time; Reinforcement (Psychology); Retention (Psychology) |
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Abstract |
In delayed matching to sample, once acquired, pigeons presumably choose comparisons according to their memory for (the strength of) the sample. When memory for the sample is sufficiently weak, comparison choice should depend on the history of reinforcement associated with each of the comparison stimuli. In the present research, pigeons acquired two matching tasks in which Sample S1 was associated with one comparison from each task, C1 and C3, whereas Sample S2 was associated with Comparison C2, and Sample S3 was associated with Comparison C4. As the retention interval increased, the pigeons showed a bias to choose the comparison (C1 or C3) associated with the more frequently occurring sample (S1). Thus, pigeons were sensitive also to the (irrelevant) likelihood that each of the samples was presented. The results suggest that pigeons may allow their reference memory for the overall sample frequency to influence comparison choice, independent of the comparison stimuli present. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044, USA. zentall@pop.uky.edu |
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0097-7403 |
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PMID:11868229 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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242 |
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