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Author |
Ray, E.D.; Heyes, C.M. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Do rats in a two-action test encode movement egocentrically or allocentrically? |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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Volume |
5 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
245-252 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; *Discrimination Learning; *Imitative Behavior; Male; Random Allocation; Rats/physiology/*psychology; Smell |
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Two-action tests of imitation compare groups that observe topographically different responses to a common manipulandum. The general aim of the two experiments reported here was to find a demonstrator-consistent responding effect in a procedure that could be elaborated to investigate aspects of what was learned about the demonstrated lever response. Experiment 1 was a pilot study with rats of a variant of the two-action method of investigating social learning about observed responses. Groups of observer rats ( Rattus norvegicus) saw a demonstrator push a lever up or down for a food reward. When these observers were subsequently given access to the lever and rewarded for responses in both directions, their directional preferences were compared with two 'screen control' groups that were unable to see their demonstrators' behaviour. Demonstrator-consistent responding was found to be restricted to observers that were able to see demonstrator performance, suggesting that scent cues alone were insufficient to cue a preference for the demonstrators' response direction and thereby that the rats learned by observation about body movements (imitation) or lever movement (emulation). Experiment 2 assessed responding on two levers, one that had been manipulated by the demonstrator, and a second, transposed lever positioned some distance away. Demonstrator-consistent responding was abolished when actions were observed and performed in different parts of the apparatus, suggesting that observed movement was encoded allocentrically with respect to the apparatus rather than egocentrically with respect to the actor's body. With particular reference to the influence of scent cues, the results are discussed in relation to the strengths and weaknesses of this and other varieties of the two-action procedure as tests of imitation in animals and human infants. |
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Department of Psychology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK. e.ray@ucl.ac.uk |
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1435-9448 |
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PMID:12461602 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2588 |
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Author |
Caldwell, C.A.; Whiten, A. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Evolutionary perspectives on imitation: is a comparative psychology of social learning possible? |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2002 |
Publication |
Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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Volume |
5 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
193-208 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Evolution; Humans; *Imitative Behavior; Learning; Models, Animal |
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Studies of imitation in animals have become numerous in recent times, but do they contribute to a comparative psychology of social learning? We review this burgeoning field to identify the problems and prospects for such a goal. Difficulties of two main kinds are identified. First, researchers have tackled questions about social learning from at least three very different theoretical perspectives, the “phylogenetic”, “animal model”, and “adaptational”. We examine the conflicts between them and consider the scope for integration. A second difficulty arises in the methodological approaches used in the discipline. In relation to one of these – survey reviews of published studies – we tabulate and compare the contrasting conclusions of nine articles that together review 36 studies. The basis for authors' disagreements, including the matters of perceptual opacity, novelty, sequential structure, and goal representation, are examined. In relation to the other key method, comparative experimentation, we identify 12 studies that have explicitly compared species' imitative ability on similar tasks. We examine the principal problems of comparing like with like in these studies and consider solutions, the most powerful of which we propose to be the use of a systematic range of task designs, rather than any single “gold standard” task. |
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School of Psychology, Washington Singer Laboratories, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK. C.A.Caldwell@exeter.ac.uk |
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1435-9448 |
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PMID:12461597 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2593 |
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Horner, V.; Whiten, A.; Flynn, E.; de Waal, F.B.M. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Faithful replication of foraging techniques along cultural transmission chains by chimpanzees and children |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |
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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |
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103 |
Issue |
37 |
Pages |
13878-13883 |
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Animals; Child, Preschool; Humans; *Imitative Behavior; Pan troglodytes/*psychology |
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Observational studies of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have revealed population-specific differences in behavior, thought to represent cultural variation. Field studies have also reported behaviors indicative of cultural learning, such as close observation of adult skills by infants, and the use of similar foraging techniques within a population over many generations. Although experimental studies have shown that chimpanzees are able to learn complex behaviors by observation, it is unclear how closely these studies simulate the learning environment found in the wild. In the present study we have used a diffusion chain paradigm, whereby a behavior is passed from one individual to the next in a linear sequence in an attempt to simulate intergenerational transmission of a foraging skill. Using a powerful three-group, two-action methodology, we found that alternative methods used to obtain food from a foraging device (“lift door” versus “slide door”) were accurately transmitted along two chains of six and five chimpanzees, respectively, such that the last chimpanzee in the chain used the same method as the original trained model. The fidelity of transmission within each chain is remarkable given that several individuals in the no-model control group were able to discover either method by individual exploration. A comparative study with human children revealed similar results. This study is the first to experimentally demonstrate the linear transmission of alternative foraging techniques by non-human primates. Our results show that chimpanzees have a capacity to sustain local traditions across multiple simulated generations. |
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Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, United Kingdom |
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0027-8424 |
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PMID:16938863 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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159 |
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Author |
Whiten, A.; Horner, V.; Litchfield, C.A.; Marshall-Pescini, S. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
How do apes ape? |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Learning & Behavior |
Abbreviated Journal |
Learn. Behav. |
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32 |
Issue |
1 |
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36-52 |
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Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; Behavior, Animal; Hominidae/*psychology; *Imitative Behavior; Imprinting (Psychology); *Learning; Psychological Theory; *Social Environment; *Social Facilitation |
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Abstract |
In the wake of telling critiques of the foundations on which earlier conclusions were based, the last 15 years have witnessed a renaissance in the study of social learning in apes. As a result, we are able to review 31 experimental studies from this period in which social learning in chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans has been investigated. The principal question framed at the beginning of this era, Do apes ape? has been answered in the affirmative, at least in certain conditions. The more interesting question now is, thus, How do apes ape? Answering this question has engendered richer taxonomies of the range of social-learning processes at work and new methodologies to uncover them. Together, these studies suggest that apes ape by employing a portfolio of alternative social-learning processes in flexibly adaptive ways, in conjunction with nonsocial learning. We conclude by sketching the kind of decision tree that appears to underlie the deployment of these alternatives. |
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Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland. a.whiten@st-and.ac.uk |
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1543-4494 |
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PMID:15161139 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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734 |
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Author |
Klein, E.D.; Zentall, T.R. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Imitation and affordance learning by pigeons (Columba livia) |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
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117 |
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4 |
Pages |
414-419 |
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Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Columbidae; Cues; *Imitative Behavior; *Learning; Odors; Sound |
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The bidirectional control procedure was used to determine whether pigeons (Columba livia) would imitate a demonstrator that pushed a sliding screen for food. One group of observers saw a trained demonstrator push a sliding screen door with its beak (imitation group), whereas 2 other groups watched the screen move independently (possibly learning how the environment works) with a conspecific either present (affordance learning with social facilitation) or absent (affordance learning alone). A 4th group could not see the screen being pushed (sound and odor control). Imitation was evidenced by the finding that pigeons that saw a demonstrator push the screen made a higher proportion of matching screen pushes than observers in 2 appropriate control conditions. Further, observers that watched a screen move without a demonstrator present made a significantly higher proportion of matching screen pushes than would be expected by chance. Thus, these pigeons were capable of affordance learning. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-004, USA |
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0735-7036 |
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PMID:14717643 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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234 |
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Nguyen, N.H.; Klein, E.D.; Zentall, T.R. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Imitation of a two-action sequence by pigeons |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Psychonomic bulletin & review |
Abbreviated Journal |
Psychon Bull Rev |
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12 |
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3 |
Pages |
514-518 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Behavior, Animal; *Cognition; Columbidae; *Imitative Behavior; *Learning |
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Developmental psychologists have described imitation as a process that suggests perspective-taking abilities. However, imitative behavior has been found in animals, which are generally not considered capable of taking the perspective of another. Previous studies with birds have demonstrated the imitation of a single response (sometimes referred to as action-level imitation). In the present experiment, we examined the extent to which pigeons would imitate an unfamiliar sequence of two behaviors (sometimes referred to as program-level imitation). Our results indicate that, although there are individual differences, pigeons show a significant tendency to match a demonstrated sequence of behavior involving, first, a response to a treadle (pecking at it or stepping on it) and, second, pushing aside a screen that blocks access to food (a left-vs.-right push). |
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University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA |
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1069-9384 |
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PMID:16235638 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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221 |
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Author |
Dorrance, B.R.; Zentall, T.R. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Imitation of conditional discriminations in pigeons (Columba livia) |
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Journal Article |
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2002 |
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Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
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116 |
Issue |
3 |
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277-285 |
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Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Columbidae; Conditioning (Psychology)/*physiology; Discrimination Learning/*physiology; Habituation, Psychophysiologic; *Imitative Behavior; Light; Reinforcement (Psychology) |
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In the present experiments, the 2-action method was used to determine whether pigeons could learn to imitate a conditional discrimination. Demonstrator pigeons (Columba livia) stepped on a treadle in the presence of 1 light and pecked at the treadle in the presence of another light. Demonstration did not seem to affect acquisition of the conditional discrimination (Experiment 1) but did facilitate its reversal of the conditional discrimination (Experiments 2 and 3). The results suggest that pigeons are not only able to learn a specific behavior by observing another pigeon, but they can also learn under which circumstances to perform that behavior. The results have implications for proposed mechanisms of imitation in animals. |
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Department of Psychology, Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois 61201, USA. psdorrance@augustana.edu |
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0735-7036 |
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PMID:12234078 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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240 |
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Author |
Nielsen, M.; Collier-Baker, E.; Davis, J.M.; Suddendorf, T. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Imitation recognition in a captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) |
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Journal Article |
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2005 |
Publication |
Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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8 |
Issue |
1 |
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31-36 |
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Animals; *Awareness; Humans; *Imitative Behavior; Male; Motor Activity; *Movement; Pan troglodytes/*psychology; *Recognition (Psychology) |
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This study investigated the ability of a captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) to recognise when he is being imitated. In the experimental condition of test 1a, an experimenter imitated the postures and behaviours of the chimpanzee as they were being displayed. In three control conditions the same experimenter exhibited (1) actions that were contingent on, but different from, the actions of the chimpanzee, (2) actions that were not contingent on, and different from, the actions of the chimpanzee, or (3) no action at all. The chimpanzee showed more “testing” sequences (i.e., systematically varying his actions while oriented to the imitating experimenter) and more repetitive behaviour when he was being imitated, than when he was not. This finding was replicated 4 months later in test 1b. When the experimenter repeated the same actions she displayed in the experimental condition of test 1a back to the chimpanzee in test 2, these actions now did not elicit those same testing sequences or repetitive behaviours. However, a live imitation condition did. Together these results provide the first evidence of imitation recognition in a nonhuman animal. |
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Early Cognitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, QLD, Brisbane, 4072, Australia. nielsen@psy.uq.edu.au |
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1435-9448 |
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PMID:15322942 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2515 |
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Author |
Zentall, T.R. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Imitation: definitions, evidence, and mechanisms |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
Publication |
Animal cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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Volume |
9 |
Issue |
4 |
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335-353 |
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Adaptation, Psychological; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; *Imitative Behavior; *Learning; Motivation; *Social Environment; Transfer (Psychology) |
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Imitation can be defined as the copying of behavior. To a biologist, interest in imitation is focused on its adaptive value for the survival of the organism, but to a psychologist, the mechanisms responsible for imitation are the most interesting. For psychologists, the most important cases of imitation are those that involve demonstrated behavior that the imitator cannot see when it performs the behavior (e.g., scratching one's head). Such examples of imitation are sometimes referred to as opaque imitation because they are difficult to account for without positing cognitive mechanisms, such as perspective taking, that most animals have not been acknowledged to have. The present review first identifies various forms of social influence and social learning that do not qualify as opaque imitation, including species-typical mechanisms (e.g., mimicry and contagion), motivational mechanisms (e.g., social facilitation, incentive motivation, transfer of fear), attentional mechanisms (e.g., local enhancement, stimulus enhancement), imprinting, following, observational conditioning, and learning how the environment works (affordance learning). It then presents evidence for different forms of opaque imitation in animals, and identifies characteristics of human imitation that have been proposed to distinguish it from animal imitation. Finally, it examines the role played in opaque imitation by demonstrator reinforcement and observer motivation. Although accounts of imitation have been proposed that vary in their level of analysis from neural to cognitive, at present no theory of imitation appears to be adequate to account for the varied results that have been found. |
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Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0044, USA. Zentall@uky.edu |
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1435-9448 |
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PMID:17024510 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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217 |
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Stoinski, T.S.; Wrate, J.L.; Ure, N.; Whiten, A. |
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Title ![sorted by Title field, ascending order (up)](img/sort_asc.gif) |
Imitative learning by captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a simulated food-processing task |
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Journal Article |
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2001 |
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Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) |
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J Comp Psychol |
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115 |
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3 |
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272-281 |
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Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; *Discrimination Learning; Feeding Behavior/*physiology; Gorilla gorilla; *Imitative Behavior; Social Behavior |
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Although field studies have suggested the existence of cultural transmission of foraging techniques in primates, identification of transmission mechanisms has remained elusive. To test experimentally for evidence of imitation in the current study, we exposed gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to an artificial fruit foraging task designed by A. Whiten and D. M. Custance (1996). Gorillas (n=6) watched a human model remove a series of 3 defenses around a fruit. Each of the defenses was removed using 1 of 2 alternative techniques. Subsequent video analysis of gorillas' behavior showed a significant tendency to copy the observed technique on 1 of the individual defenses and the direction of removal on another defense. This is the first statistically reliable evidence of imitation in gorillas. Sequence of defense removal was not replicated. The gorillas' responses were most similar to those of chimpanzees. |
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TECHlab, Zoo Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA. stoinskit@mindspring.com |
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PMID:11594496 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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738 |
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