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Koyama, N. (1985). Playmate relationships among individuals of the Japanese monkey troop in arashiyama. Primates, 26(4), 390-406.
Abstract: Observations of play behavior were made on a troop of Japanese monkeys for five months. The troop consisted of 125 animals during the study period. Only 104 animals were observed playing with the troop members while the other 21 animals were never observed playing with other individuals. Two-member play was the most frequent. On the average, a monkey played with 20.7 individuals. A total of 6,068 play bouts were observed. The frequency of play appeared to be affected by age, sex, and degree of relatedness. One-year-old infant males played most with other members and the frequency of play decreased with age. Between monkeys whose disparity of age was less than two years, 5,763 bouts (95.0% of the total) were observed. Moreover, among sameaged monkeys who comprised 10.6% of the possible pair combinations, 2,739 play bouts (45.1%) were observed. Juvenile males played with same-sexed peers more than with opposite-sexed peers, whereas older juvenile females appeared to play with infants of both sexes. Individuals who were related and similarly-ranked tended to play together. There was no apparent preference for animals to play with the offspring of the highest-ranking female. Dominance rank of infnats and juveniles was primarily affected by rank of their mothers and to a lesser extent by play partners. Dominance rank of older juvenile males is more likely to be affected by play partners than females. It may be a critical time for males when they leave their natal troop and join a new troop. The timing of troop shifting by males seemed to be affected by the presence or absence of play-mates. For male Japanese monkeys, play is very important in developing social bonds. Play may act to perpetuate social bonds, enhance the chance of survival, and may contribute to their future reproductive success.
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Veevers, J. E. (1985). The Social Meaning of Pets -- Alternative Roles for Companion Animals. Marriage Fam Rev, 8(3&4), 11–30.
Abstract: When companion animal interact closely with people, the roles they play may be categorized in terms of three major functions. The projective function involves the extent to which pets may serve as a symbolic extension of the self. The sociability function involves the role of pets in facilitating human-to-human interaction. The surrogate function involves the extent to which interaction with pets may supplement human-to-human interaction, or serve as a substitute for it. A person publicly identified with a companion animal makes a symbolic statement of their personality and self-image. Whether or not this process is intentional, the presence of a pet and the way it is treated become factors which are taken into account in the assessment of the social self. Pets facilitate interaction by being social lubricants. They provide a neutral subject of conversation, and perform a variety of functions as social catalysts. Since interaction with companion animals can approximate human companionship, the presence of pets may serve to supplement the benefits usually derived from the roles of friend, parent, spouse, or child. Alternatively, pets may serve as surrogate antagonists. In the extreme, interaction with companion animals may not only supplement human companionship, but may actually replace it. These three major functions are discussed with examples. Implications are noted for future research on companion animals.
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Moehlman, P. (1985). The odd-toed ungulates: order Perrisodactyla. In R. E. Brown, & D. W. Macdonald (Eds.), Social odours in mammals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Packer, C., & Pusey, A. E. (1985). Asymmetric contests in social mammals: respect, manipulation and age-specific aspects. In P. J. Greenwood, M. Slatkin, & (Ed.), Evolution: Essays in Honour of John Maynard Smith (pp. 173–86). Camebridge: Camebridge University Press.
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Sasväri, L. (1985). Different Observational Learning Capacity in Juvenile and Adult Individuals of Congeneric Bird Species. Z. Tierpsychol., 69(4), 293–304.
Abstract: Abstract and Summary: Since the adaptive significance of social organization is emphasized diversely in both anti-predator behaviour and food searching of birds, measures and comparisons of observational learning capacity of various species are needed. Four different experimental situations were built up for juvenile and adult individuals of tits (Parus major, P. caeruleus, P. palustris) and thrushes (Turdus merula, T. philo-melos). The birds learn more easily from conspecifics and learn easily when they already know a previous problem solving situation. The capacity of observational learning of the adult great tits surpasses that of adult blue tits and marsh tits, and that of the adult blackbirds exceeds that of the adult songthrushes. The higher performance of the great tit and blackbird can be related to their greater hemispheric index. The differences in the learning capacity of the naive individuals of the three tit species and that of the two thrush species were not significant. It is suggested, that the higher observational learning of the great tit and blackbird is evolved through maturational processes and can be reflected by their greater adaptability. Zusammenfassung: Lernen durch Nachahmung wurde in vier verschiedenen Situationen mit jungen und alten Individuen von Meisen- (Parus major, P. caeruleus, P. palustris) und Drosselarten (Turdus merula, T. philomelos) untersucht. Die Vögel lernten besser von Artgenossen und lernten leicht, wenn sie vorher bereits eine Problemlösungssituation kannten. Die Lernfähigkeit (durch Nachahmung) alter Kohlmeisen übertraf die alter Blau- und Sumpfmeisen; die Lernfähigkeit alter Amseln übertraf die alter Singdrosseln. Die höhere Leistung der Kohlmeisen und Amseln hängt mit ihrem höheren Hemisphären-Index zusammen. Naive Individuen der Meisen- und Drosselarten zeigten keine signifikanten Unterschiede in ihrer Lernfähigkeit. Es ist anzunehmen, daß die höhere Lernfähigkeit der Kohlmeise und der Amsel im Laufe der Entwicklung durch Reifungsprozesse zustande kommt und sich in ihrer höheren Anpassungsfähig-keit widerspiegelt.
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Shettleworth, S. J. (1985). Handling time and choice in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav, 44(2), 139–155.
Abstract: According to optimal foraging theory, animals should prefer food items with the highest ratios of energy intake to handling time. When single items have negligible handling times, one large item should be preferred to a collection of small ones of equivalent total weight. However, when pigeons were offered such a choice on equal concurrent variable-interval schedules in a shuttlebox, they preferred the side offering many small items per reinforcement to that offering one or a few relatively large items. This preference was still evident on concurrent fixed-cumulative-duration schedules in which choosing the alternative with longer handling time substantially lowered the rate of food intake.
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Cook, M., Mineka, S., Wolkenstein, B., & Laitsch, K. (1985). Observational conditioning of snake fear in unrelated rhesus monkeys. J Abnorm Psychol, 94(4), 591–610.
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Chase, I. D. (1985). The sequential analysis of aggressive acts during hierarchy formation: an application of the `jigsaw puzzle' approach. Anim. Behav., 33(1), 86–100.
Abstract: The `jigsaw puzzle' approach is a general method for investigating how interactions among individuals cumulate to form the overall patterns of dominance behaviour in groups. Here, the model is used to discover how aggressive interactions between pairs of individuals modify subsequent interactions with bystanders or third parties. The model indicates that four sequences of successive, aggressive acts are possible in component triads of larger groups: two ensure transitive attack relationships and two can lead to either transitive or intransitive relationships. An application of the model to 14 groups of four hens demonstrates that the two sequences guaranteeing transitivity make up 77% of all sequences. More specifically, hens attacking one group member usually go on to attack a second member, and hens receiving one attack frequently receive a second attack from a bystander. In contrast, an attacked hen rarely `redirects' an attack to a bystander, and a bystander rarely attacks a group member who has just attacked another individual. The application of the jigsaw puzzle approach to aggressive sequences in other species is discussed. Data available for several primate species corroborate the findings in hens and provide support for the method as a general tool for investigating the proximate mechanisms of hierarchy formation.
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Berger J. (1985). Interspecific Interactions and Dominance among Wild Great Basin Ungulates. J. Mamm., 66(3), . 571–573.
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CROWELL-DAVIS SL et al. (1985). Snapping by foals of Equus caballus. Z. Tierpsychol., 69, 42–54.
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