Abstract: Feral horses are social animals, which have to rely on survival strategies centered on the formation of cohesive social bonds within their bands. Many problems in the husbandry of social animals such as horses, are due to the fact that the limits of their adaptive abilities are exceeded. Evidence suggests that the fundamental social characteristics of domestic horses have remained relatively unchanged. The social structure, social strategies and social interactions were investigated (3 non-consecutive years, 24 hr per day for several weeks) in long term established groups of domestic horses (mares and geldings of all ages) and a few small introduced groups, kept in (semi)natural environments. The general aim was to investigate the social needs of domestic horses. The social life of domestic horses was characterised by long lasting bonds with preferred partners which were established and maintained by allogrooming, play, proximity and dominance behaviours. Bonding partners were mainly found within the same sex-age group, but adult geldings also bonded with sub-adult mares and geldings. Adult mares were clustered in a group, while the other animals formed a second group. Among the adult mares, subgroups according to reproductive state were formed. Individuals regulated their social network by interfering with interactions between other members of the herd, which in itself is complex. An intervention is a behavioural action of one animal that actively interferes with an ongoing interaction between a dyad with the apparent aim of altering that interaction. This was verified by post-hoc analyses of disturbed and undisturbed interactions. Interventions in allogrooming or play were performed significantly more often when at least one member of the initial dyad was a preferred partner of, or familiar to (within the small introduced bands) the intervener. The stronger the preferred association in allogrooming between the intervener and member(s) of the initial dyad, the higher the probability the intervener would displace one initial member and continue allogrooming with the other. Just five behaviours were extracted which reliably reflected the dominance relations among horses. Aggression with the hind quarters was used both offensively and defensively and therefore not suitable as a reliable parameter. Individual dominance relationships were related to social experience. The implications of these findings for horse husbandry were assessed. It is argued that the execution of affiliative behaviours may be rewarding in itself, and therefore always will be a highly motivated behaviour. It is shown that social positive physical interactions (allogrooming, play) with other horses is an ethological need and therefore indispensable in modern husbandry systems. Ethological needs are so important for the animal that husbandry systems that lack the possibilities to execute such behaviours will cause chronic stress. It is concluded that all horses need physical social contact, and that horses, which lack appropriate social learning experiences during ontogeny, may be hampered in their social functioning later in life. Solutions for problems, including dominance problems, in individual social housing and group housing are presented.

Abstract: Equilibrium, stopped flow, and temperature-jump spectrophotometry have been used to identify processes in the unfolding of ferricytochrome c in acidic aqueous solutions. A relaxation occurring in approximately 100 microseconds involves perturbation of a spin-equilibrium between two folded conformers of the protein with methionine-80 coordinated or dissociated from the heme iron. The protein unfolds more slowly, in milliseconds, with dissociation and protonation of histidine-18. These two transitions appear cooperative in equilibrium measurements at low (0.01 M) ionic strength, but are separated at higher (0.10 M) ionic strength. They are resolved under both conditions in the dynamic measurements. The spin-equilibrium description permits a unified explanation of a number of properties of ferricytochrome c in acidic aqueous solutions.

Abstract: Ziel der Untersuchung war es, herauszufinden, welche Auswirkungen eine Erhöhung der
Gruppengröße bei Jungpferden auf die Bewegungsaktivität, das Liege- und Sozialverhalten
und die Körperkondition hat. Hierfür wurden insgesamt 42 Pferde im Alter von ein
bis zwei Jahren in Laufstallhaltung in die Untersuchung einbezogen. Die Jungpferde aus
der Bewegungs- und Liegeverhaltensanalyse waren in zwei Kleingruppen (acht und
11 Tiere) und einer Großgruppe (23 Tiere) aufgestallt.
In der Bewegungsaktivität waren deutliche Unterschiede zu erkennen. Es ließ sich ein
positiver Einfluss einer höheren Tierzahl nachweisen, aber kein Einfluss des Alters. Beim
Ruheverhalten konnten höhere Liegezeiten und -frequenzen mit einer Zunahme der
Gruppengröße und eine Abnahme der Liegezeit mit zunehmendem Alter ermittelt werden.
Eine Störung des Liegeverhaltens durch Gruppengrößen, die nicht der natürlichen
Herdenstruktur des Pferdes entsprechen, wurde nicht nachgewiesen. Jedoch hatte die
Haltung der Jährlinge in der großen Gruppe einen Anstieg der repulsiven Verhaltensweisen
zur Konsequenz. Zudem zeigte die Bestimmung des Body Condition Scores
Unterschiede in der Körperkondition bei den Jährlingen der Groß- bzw. der Kleingruppe.
Einem Mangel an Bewegung, der für das Auftreten von Gliedmaßenerkrankungen und
Verhaltensstörungen verantwortlich gemacht wird, kann durch die Haltung von Jungpferden
in großen Gruppen entgegengewirkt werden.
[It is often discussed that the inactivity of horses causes diseases of their musculoskeletal system. Due to these problems the objective of the investigation was to quantify if the size of a group has an effect on the behaviour of young horses. Data from 42 horses in the age of one to two years have been involved in the investigation. The data of two small groups were compared with data of one big group with 23 horses. The movement and lying behaviour of 28 horses were measured with ALT pedometers. The social behaviour of 33 yearlings was documented by direct observation. The results show that the median of the movement time of horses in group A is 82 minutes per day. In group B this increases to a median of 101 and group C reaches the highest median of 149. In the case of lying time an increasing group size leads to a longer duration and a higher frequency of lying, whereas an increase in the age reduces the lying duration. International research studies have shown that keeping of horses in big group husbandry systems is not very common by the owners of horses. In contrast these investigations have shown that horse keeping in big groups has no negative influence on the social behaviour and the Body Condition Score of young horses.]