|
|
Waring Gh,. (1970). Animal behavior – Its place and future in agriculture. Amer Zool, 10.
|
|
|
|
Willemse Mca,. (1950). The shifting of the molar row with regard to the orbit in equus and giraffa. Zool Mededelingen, 30, 311–326.
|
|
|
|
YALDEN DW et al,. (1986). Catalogue of the mammals of Ethiopia 6; II. order Perissodactyla; A. Family Equidae Monitore Zool italiano Suppl, 21, 35–41.
|
|
|
|
Klingel, H.. (1972). Social behaviour of African Equidae. Zool. Afr., 7(1), 175–185.
|
|
|
|
Mitchell, B. L., Skenton, J. B., & Uys, J. C. M. (1965). Predation on large mammals in Kafue National Park. Zool. Afr, 1, 297–318.
|
|
|
|
Zlatanova, D., Ahmed, A., Valasseva, A., & Genov, P. (2014). Adaptive Diet Strategy of the Wolf (Canis lupus L.) in Europe: a Review. Acta zool. bulg., 66(4), 439–452.
Abstract: The diet strategy of the wolf in Europe is reviewed on the basis of 74 basic and 14 additional literature
sources. The comparative analysis reveals clear dependence on the latitude (and, therefore, on the changing
environmental conditions) correlated with the wild ungulate abundance and diversity. Following a
geographic pattern, the wolf is specialised on different species of ungulates: moose and reindeer in Scandinavia,
red deer in Central and Eastern Europe and wild boar in Southern Europe. Where this large prey
is taken, the roe deer is hunted with almost the same frequency in every region. The wolf diet in Europe
shows two ecological adaptations formed by a complex of variables: 1. Wolves living in natural habitats
with abundance of wild ungulates feed mainly on wild prey. 2. In highly anthropogenic habitats, with low
abundance of wild prey, wolves feed on livestock (where husbandry of domestic animals is available) and
take also a lot of plant food, smaller prey (hares and rodents) and garbage food. The frequency of occurrence
of wild ungulates in the diet of wolves in North Europe varies from 54.0% in Belarus to 132.7% in
Poland, while that of livestock is in the range from 0.4% in Norway to 74.9% in Belarus. In South Europe,
the frequency of occurrence of wild prey varies from 0% in Italy and Spain to 136.0% in Italy, while of domestic
ungulates ranges between 0% and 100% in Spain. The low density or lack of wild prey triggers the
switch of the wolf diet to livestock, plant food (32.2-85% in Italy) or even garbage (up to 41.5% in Italy).
|
|
|
|
Chu, G. Z., et al. (1985). The summer habitat and population numbers of the Mongolian wild ass in the Kalamaili Mountains Wildlife Reserve, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Acta Zoologica Sinica, 31(2), 178–186.
|
|
|
|
Geisbauer, G., Griebel, U., Schmid, A., & Timney, B. (2004). Brightness discrimination and neutral point. Can. J. Zool, 82(4), 660–670.
Abstract: Abstract: Equine brightness discrimination ability and color discrimination were measured using a two-choice discrimination
task. Two Haflinger horses (Equus caballus L., 1758) were trained to discriminate 30 different shades of grey
varying from low to high relative brightness. Their ability to distinguish shades of grey was poor, with calculated
Weber fractions of 0.42 and 0.45. In addition, a “neutral point” test to determine the dimensionality of color vision
was carried out. Three hues of blue-green were tested versus a range of grey targets with brightnesses similar to those
of the blue-green targets. A neutral point was found at about 480 nm. Thus, we can conclude that horses possess
dichromatic color vision.
|
|
|
|
Weckerly, F. W. (1999). Social bonding and aggression in female Roosevelt elk. Can J Zool, 77(9), 1379–1384.
Abstract: Abstract: The relationship between degree of social bonding (extent of association among individuals) and level of aggression in ruminants is unclear. I examined social bonding and aggression in three groups of female Roosevelt elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) over 2 years. I hypothesized that when animals are socially bonded, bouts of aggression will be won by the individual initiating the aggression, occur quickly, and involve little physical contact, and the level of aggression does not correlate with group size. The degree of social bonding was high among individuals in all groups. Dyads of known individuals were together >80% of the time. A permutation analysis indicated that groups with the observed sizes had <0.001 chance of random association, except on one occasion when the probability was 0.72 for one group. Using focal-animal sampling, aggressive interactions were won 72% of the time by the initiator, occurred quickly (<5 s), and involved little physical contact, and the level of aggression was not correlated with group size. The level of aggression was, however, significantly lower in one of the groups. This group may have had access to more abundant food resources than the other groups. Socially bonded elk conducted aggressive interactions in a fashion that did not disrupt social stability. Résumé : La relation entre le degré de liaison sociale (importance des associations entre individus) et l`agressivité n`est pas claire chez les ruminants. J`ai étudié les liaisons sociales et l`agressivité chez trois groupes de femelles du Cerf de Roosevelt (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) pendant 2 ans. J`ai posé en hypothèse que, chez les animaux liés socialement, la victoire devrait être emportée par l`individu qui entreprend l`agression, l`agression devrait être de courte durée, se faire avec peu de contacts physiques et la fréquence des agressions ne devrait pas être liée à la taille du groupe. Des paires d`individus passaient plus de 80% de leur temps ensemble. Une analyse des permutations a démontré que, chez les groupes des tailles observées, la probabilité d`une association aléatoire était de moins de 0,001, sauf en un cas où cette probabilité a été évaluée à 0,72 chez un groupe. Par échantillonnage directionnel, j`ai observé que les interactions agressives étaient gagnées par l`individu attaquant 72% du temps, étaient de courte durée (<5 s), se faisaient avec peu de contacts physiques et leur fréquence n`était pas reliée à la taille du groupe. Il y avait cependant moins d`agressivité chez l`un des groupes. Il se peut que ce groupe ait eu accès à plus de ressources alimentaires que les autres. Chez les cerfs liés par des liens sociaux, l`agressivité ne se manifeste pas de façon à déséquilibrer la stabilité sociale.
|
|
|
|
Zharkikh, T. L., & Andersen, L. (2009). Behaviour of Bachelor Males of the Przewalski Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) at the Reserve Askania Nova. Zoologische Garten, 78(5-6), 282–299.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate social relationships between Przewalski horses at a high density in a bachelor group housed in a 3.5-ha enclosure. The group consisted of 16 males aged 5 to 16. Behavioural data were collected during 18 days, total 216 h. Fifteen minute focal animal sampling was used; each horse was observed three times a day for a total of 45 min. The occurrence of 25 behaviours was recorded, and group spacing behaviour was studied using nearest neighbour recordings. The group divided into four subgroups; this supports earlier findings of bachelor groups (n>=10) dividing into two or more subgroups if they included several males aged >5 years. The total frequency of social interactions was 14.6±1.1 h-1. Although the density of the group in this study was higher than in other zoos, the males interacted agonistically only 3.6 h-1. The most frequently observed social behaviour categories were friendly interactions. This study shows possibilities to use some investigative behaviours (marking, flehmen, olfactory investigation, etc.) as indicators of social status of animals in a group.
|
|
