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Author |
Christensen, J.W.; Rundgren, M.; Olsson, K. |
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Title |
Training methods for horses: habituation to a frightening stimulus |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication  |
Equine veterinary journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
38 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
439-443 |
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Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; *Conditioning (Psychology); *Fear; Heart Rate/*physiology; Horses/physiology/*psychology; Learning; Male; Random Allocation; *Reinforcement (Psychology); Safety; Time Factors |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Responses of horses in frightening situations are important for both equine and human safety. Considerable scientific interest has been shown in development of reactivity tests, but little effort has been dedicated to the development of appropriate training methods for reducing fearfulness. OBJECTIVES: To investigate which of 3 different training methods (habituation, desensitisation and counter-conditioning) was most effective in teaching horses to react calmly in a potentially frightening situation. HYPOTHESES: 1) Horses are able to generalise about the test stimulus such that, once familiar with the test stimulus in one situation, it appears less frightening and elicits a reduced response even when the stimulus intensity is increased or the stimulus is presented differently; and 2) alternative methods such as desensitisation and counter-conditioning would be more efficient than a classic habituation approach. METHODS: Twenty-seven naive 2-year-old Danish Warmblood stallions were trained according to 3 different methods, based on classical learning theory: 1) horses (n = 9) were exposed to the full stimulus (a moving, white nylon bag, 1.2 x 0.75 m) in 5 daily training sessions until they met a predefined habituation criterion (habituation); 2) horses (n = 9) were introduced gradually to the stimulus and habituated to each step before the full stimulus was applied (desensitisation); 3) horses (n = 9) were trained to associate the stimulus with a positive reward before being exposed to the full stimulus (counter-conditioning). Each horse received 5 training sessions of 3 min per day. Heart rate and behavioural responses were recorded. RESULTS: Horses trained with the desensitisation method showed fewer flight responses in total and needed fewer training sessions to learn to react calmly to test stimuli. Variations in heart rate persisted even when behavioural responses had ceased. In addition, all horses on the desensitisation method eventually habituated to the test stimulus whereas some horses on the other methods did not. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Desensitisation appeared to be the most effective training method for horses in frightening situations. Further research is needed in order to investigate the role of positive reinforcement, such as offering food, in the training of horses. |
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Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Health, Welfare and Nutrition, Tjele, Denmark |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:16986605 |
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1783 |
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Pritchard, J.C.; Barr, A.R.S.; Whay, H.R. |
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Title |
Validity of a behavioural measure of heat stress and a skin tent test for dehydration in working horses and donkeys |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine veterinary journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
38 |
Issue |
5 |
Pages |
433-438 |
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Keywords |
Age Factors; Animal Welfare; Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; Body Temperature/*physiology; Body Weight/physiology; Case-Control Studies; Dehydration/diagnosis/pathology/*veterinary; Drinking; *Equidae; Female; Heat Stress Disorders/diagnosis/physiopathology/*veterinary; Horse Diseases/*diagnosis/pathology; Horses; Hypovolemia/diagnosis/physiopathology/veterinary; Male; Osmolar Concentration; Pakistan; Respiration; Skin/*pathology; Species Specificity; Work |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Dehydration and heat stress are serious welfare issues for equids working in developing countries. There is a lack of any standardised method or validated interpretation of the skin tent test in horses and donkeys. Owners of dehydrated and heat-stressed animals often depend on veterinary examination for identification of these conditions, leading to delays in treatment and unnecessary reliance on external sources to effect welfare improvement. OBJECTIVES: To validate a standardised skin tent test for dehydration and a behavioural measure of heat stress in working equids; and to examine the effect of heat stress and dehydration on tripping and staggering behaviour. METHODS: The study was carried out on 130 working horses and donkeys in Pakistan. Associations between skin tent and blood parameters (packed cell volume [PCV], serum total protein [TP], serum osmolality), clinical parameters, resting and drinking behaviour were examined. Heat stress behaviour (increased respiratory rate and depth, head nodding, flared nostrils, apathy) was observed in conjunction with rectal temperature. Tripping and staggering were assessed using a simple obstacle course. RESULTS: In both species, heat stress behaviour was significantly associated with increased rectal temperature (P<0.001). A positive skin tent test was not significantly associated with PCV or TP, although in donkeys it was significantly associated with lower serum osmolality (P<0.001). More animals age >15 years had a positive skin tent than those in younger age groups (P = 0.037). Very thin horses were more likely to have a positive skin tent than those in thin or moderate condition (P = 0.028). There was no significant correlation between skin tent and tripping or staggering in either species. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Heat stress behaviour is related to increased body temperature in working horses and donkeys. Owners may use this to make judgements regarding rest and cooling, precluding the need to seek veterinary attention. The skin tent test for dehydration used in this study did not show a significant relationship with PCV or TP. However, the use of blood parameters to validate the skin tent test may be confounded by anaemia, hypoproteinaemia or electrolyte depletion. Alternative methods are needed to confirm or refute the validity of the skin tent test in working equids. |
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Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford, UK |
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PMID:16986604 |
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1784 |
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Staniar, W.B.; Kronfeld, D.S.; Hoffman, R.M.; Wilson, J.A.; Harris, P.A. |
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Title |
Weight prediction from linear measures of growing Thoroughbreds |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Equine veterinary journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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36 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
149-154 |
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Keywords |
Animal Nutrition Physiology; Animals; Biometry; Body Weight/*physiology; Female; Horses/*anatomy & histology/*growth & development; Male; Mathematics; Predictive Value of Tests; Reproducibility of Results; Sensitivity and Specificity |
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REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Monitoring weight of foals is a useful management practice to aid in maximising athletic potential while minimising risks associated with deviations from normal growth. OBJECTIVE: To develop predictive equations for weight, based on linear measurements of growing Thoroughbreds (TBs). METHODS: Morphometric equations predicting weight from measurements of the trunk and legs were developed from data of 153 foals. The accuracy, precision and bias of the best fitting equation were compared to published equations using a naive data set of 22 foals. RESULTS: Accuracy and precision were maximised with a broken line relating calculated volumes (V(t + l)) to measured weights. Use of the broken line is a 2 step process. V(t + l) is calculated from linear measures (m) of girth (G), carpus circumference (C), and length of body (B) and left forelimb (F). V(t + I) = ([G2 x B] + 4[C2 x F]) 4pi. If V(t + l) < 0.27 m3, weight is estimated: Weight (kg) = V(t + l) x 1093. If V(t + l) > or = 0.27 m3: Weight (kg) = V(t + l) x 984 + 24. The broken line was more accurate and precise than 3 published equations predicting the weight of young TBs. CONCLUSIONS: Estimation of weight using morphometric equations requires attention to temporal changes in body shape and density; hence, a broken line is needed. Including calculated leg volume in the broken line model is another contributing factor to improvement in predictive capability. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The broken line maximises its value to equine professionals through its accuracy, precision and convenience. |
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Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0306, USA |
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PMID:15038438 |
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1806 |
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Carroll, C.L.; Huntington, P.J. |
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Title |
Body condition scoring and weight estimation of horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1988 |
Publication |
Equine veterinary journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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20 |
Issue |
1 |
Pages |
41-45 |
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Animals; Biometry; *Body Weight; Female; Horses/*anatomy & histology; Male; Physical Examination/*veterinary |
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Three hundred and seventy two horses of varying breeds, height and fatness were weighed and measured for height at the withers. They were assessed for condition score by adaptation of a previously published method. The heart girth and length of 281 of the horses were also measured. Weight of horses was highly correlated (P less than 0.001) with height (r2 = 0.62), condition score (r2 = 0.22) and girth2 x length (r2 = 0.90). Nomograms were constructed to predict weight from height and condition score, and girth and length measurements. Weight can also be accurately estimated from the formula: (formula, see text) The average value of 'Y' in this experiment was 11900 and this estimated weight with more accuracy than some previously published values of 'Y'. Racing Thoroughbred horses were found to be significantly lighter than non-racing Thoroughbreds of the same height and condition score. The method of assessment of condition score was shown to be repeatable between different operators with varying degrees of experience. |
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Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Attwood Veterinary Research Laboratory, Westmeadows, Victoria, Australia |
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PMID:3366105 |
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1808 |
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Jonsson, H.; Egenvall, A. |
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Prevalence of gastric ulceration in Swedish Standardbreds in race training |
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Journal Article |
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2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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38 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
209-213 |
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Age Factors; Animal Feed; Animals; Cross-Sectional Studies; Female; Gastric Mucosa/pathology; Gastroscopy/methods/veterinary; Horse Diseases/*epidemiology/etiology/pathology; Horses; Male; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*adverse effects; Prevalence; Questionnaires; Severity of Illness Index; Sex Factors; Sports; Stomach Ulcer/epidemiology/etiology/pathology/*veterinary; Sweden/epidemiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There is little information about the prevalence of gastric ulcers in Standardbred trotters and potential correlations between ulcers and various traits, e.g. age, sex, performance, temperament and feeding regimens, need further elucidation. OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of ulcers in the gastric squamous mucosa of Swedish Standardbreds was estimated and the associations between ulcer score and age, sex, performance, temperament and feeding regimens were determined. METHODS: Eighty Swedish Standardbreds in active race training, trained by 9 different trainers, underwent gastroscopy. Information on age, gender, status of training, performance over the last 4 months compared with the trainer's expectations before that period, behaviour, eating habits, feed type, bedding type, time spent outdoors per day and medical treatment during the last month was collected. Gastroscopy was performed and lesions in the squamous gastric mucosa were scored from 0 to 4 (0 = no lesions; 4 = > 5 lesions with haemorrhage, > 10 lesions with no haemorrhage, or a large area of diffuse loss of surface epithelium). RESULTS: Twenty-four (30%) of the horses had no lesions in the squamous mucosa, 22 (27.5%) had a score of 1; 21 (26.2%) score 2; 9 (11.2%) score 3; and 4 (5%) score 4. Horses that were in preparatory training and those that had raced during the last month were significantly more affected than horses that were fit for racing but had not raced during the last month, using a logistic regression model with trainer incorporated as a random effect. CONCLUSIONS: The study confirmed a high prevalence of ulcers in the gastric squamous mucosa of Standardbreds in race training. Of the studied parameters only status of training showed a significant association with gastric ulcers of the squamous mucosa. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Gastric ulceration is a common disease and diagnosis should be made by endoscopic examination of the gastric mucosa, since parameters such as age, gender, performance, behaviour, eating habits provide only weak clues as to which horses might be affected. Further studies are needed to determine the aetiology of the syndrome and to find ways to reduce, if possible, the frequency of gastric ulcers. |
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ATG:s Hastsjukhus Farjestad, Norra Infarten 82, SE-654 65 Karlstad, Sweden |
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PMID:16706273 |
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1870 |
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Husted, L.; Andersen, M.S.; Borggaard, O.K.; Houe, H.; Olsen, S.N. |
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Risk factors for faecal sand excretion in Icelandic horses |
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Journal Article |
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2005 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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37 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
351-355 |
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Animal Feed; Animal Husbandry/methods; Animals; Denmark; Feces/*chemistry; Female; Gastrointestinal Diseases/epidemiology/etiology/prevention & control/veterinary; Horse Diseases/epidemiology/etiology/prevention & control; Horses/*metabolism; Logistic Models; Male; Pilot Projects; *Poaceae/growth & development; Risk Factors; Silicon Dioxide/administration & dosage/adverse effects/*analysis; Soil/*analysis |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Sandy soil is often mentioned as a risk factor in the development of sand-related gastrointestinal disease (SGID) in the horse. There are other variables, but few studies confirm any of these. OBJECTIVE: To investigate soil type, pasture quality, feeding practice in the paddock, age, sex and body condition score as risk factors for sand intake in the horse. METHODS: Faeces were collected from 211 Icelandic horses on 19 different studs in Denmark together with soil samples and other potential risk factors. Sand content in faeces determined by a sand sedimentation test was interpreted as evidence of sand intake. Soil types were identified by soil analysis and significance of the data was tested using logistic analysis. RESULTS: Of horses included in the study, 56.4% showed sand in the faeces and 5.7% had more than 5 mm sand as quantified by the rectal sleeve sedimentation test. Soil type had no significant effect when tested as main effect, but there was interaction between soil type and pasture quality. Significant interactions were also found between paddock feeding practice and pasture quality. CONCLUSION: To evaluate the risk of sand intake it is important to consider 3 variables: soil type, pasture quality and feeding practice. Pasture quality was identified as a risk factor of both short and long grass in combination with sandy soil, while clay soil had the lowest risk in these combinations. Feeding practice in the paddock revealed feeding directly on the ground to be a risk factor when there was short (1-5 cm) or no grass. Also, no feeding outdoors increased the risk on pastures with short grass, while this had no effect in paddocks with no grass. More than 50% of all horses investigated in this study had sand in the faeces. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: The identification of risk factors is an important step towards prevention of SGID. Further research is necessary to determine why some horses exhibit more than 5 mm sand in the sedimentation test and whether this is correlated with geophagic behaviour. |
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Department of Large Animal Sciences, The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Dyrlaegevej 88, DK-1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark |
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PMID:16028626 |
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1888 |
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Visser, E.K.; Van Reenen, C.G.; Rundgren, M.; Zetterqvist, M.; Morgan, K.; Blokhuis, H.J. |
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Title |
Responses of horses in behavioural tests correlate with temperament assessed by riders |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
35 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
176-183 |
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Adult; Animals; *Behavior, Animal/physiology; Data Interpretation, Statistical; Female; *Handling (Psychology); Heart Rate/*physiology; Horses/physiology/*psychology; Humans; Male; Personality; Temperament/*physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Behavioural tests as well as observers' ratings have been used to study horses' temperament. However, the relationship between the ratings and the responses in behavioural tests has not yet been studied in detail. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the present study was to examine this relationship between ratings and responses. METHODS: Eighteen mature Swedish Warmblood horses were subjected to 2 behavioural tests, one relating to novelty (novel object test) and one to handling (handling test). Subsequently, 16 of these horses were ridden by 16 equally experienced students, having no former experience with the horses. Immediately after each ride, the students scored the horse for 10 temperamental traits using a line rating method. RESULTS: It was shown that for each temperamental trait all 16 riders agreed on the ranking of the horses (0.212<W<0.505, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Correlations between behavioural and heart rate variables in the behavioural tests revealed that horses with a high level of locomotion or much restlessness behaviour exhibited high mean heart rate and low heart rate variability. In particular, heart rate variables in the behavioural tests were found to correlate with riders' rating scores. Furthermore, the underlying components of the handling test, retrieved with a principal component analysis (PCA) correlated with riders' rating scores while the underlying components of the novel object test did not. POTENTIAL CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is concluded that it is possible for a large panel of assessors to agree upon a horse's temperament and that objective measures from behavioural tests correlate significantly with temperamental traits assessed by a panel of assessors. |
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Department of Equine Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, PO Box 80.163, NL-3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands |
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PMID:12638795 |
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1906 |
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Bachmann, I.; Audige, L.; Stauffacher, M. |
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Risk factors associated with behavioural disorders of crib-biting, weaving and box-walking in Swiss horses |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
35 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
158-163 |
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Animal Husbandry/*methods; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Confounding Factors (Epidemiology); Data Collection; Female; Horse Diseases/epidemiology/*etiology/prevention & control; Horses; *Housing, Animal; Male; Mental Disorders/epidemiology/etiology/prevention & control/*veterinary; Prevalence; Regression Analysis; Risk Factors; *Stereotyped Behavior; Switzerland/epidemiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Studies on the prevalence of behavioural disorders in horses and on associated risk factors have revealed inconsistent results. There are many studies on the neuropharmacological, surgical or mechanical therapy of stereotypies, but little is known about their causation. OBJECTIVES: To explore risk factors associated with the occurrence of behavioural disorders in horses. METHODS: A sample of horse owners, selected randomly and representative for Switzerland, was contacted in a postal survey. Answers were provided for 622 stables (response rate 35.2%). Individual data of 2,341 horses were examined with path analysis (multivariable linear and logistic regression), and adjustment made for possible confounding effects due to age and breed. RESULTS: Out of 60 possible risk factors, 11 were associated with the outcome at the univariable level (null-hypothesis path model) and 3 factors remained after the backward logistic regression procedure. Mature Warmbloods and Thoroughbreds, assessed by the owners to be reactive, fed 4 times a day and without daily pasture, had increased odds of displaying crib-biting, weaving and box-walking. Furthermore, indirect associations of 5 factors with the outcome were identified. CONCLUSIONS: The final logistic regression model of risk factors leads to the hypotheses that causal prevention of stereotypic behaviours should be based upon housing and management conditions which allow tactile contact with other horses (e.g. mutual grooming), daily free movement (paddock or pasture), as well as the provision of high amounts of roughage but of little or no concentrates. POTENTIAL CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is one of the aims of population medicine to prevent the development of behavioural disorders. Further research is needed to test the concluding hypotheses in experimental studies or to verify them in the context of similar observational studies. |
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Institute of Animal Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), LFW B55. 1, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland |
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PMID:12638792 |
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1907 |
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Williams, J.L.; Friend, T.H.; Collins, M.N.; Toscano, M.J.; Sisto-Burt, A.; Nevill, C.H. |
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Title |
Effects of imprint training procedure at birth on the reactions of foals at age six months |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2003 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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Volume |
35 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
127-132 |
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Age Factors; Animal Husbandry/methods; Animals; Animals, Newborn/*psychology; *Behavior, Animal; *Bonding, Human-Pet; Female; Handling (Psychology); Horses/*psychology; Humans; *Imprinting (Psychology); Male; Random Allocation; Socialization; Time Factors |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: While imprint training procedures have been promoted in popular magazines, they have received limited scientific investigation. OBJECTIVES: To determine the effects of a neonatal imprint training procedure on 6-month-old foals and to determine if any one session had a greater effect than others. METHODS: Foals (n = 131) were divided into the following treatments: no imprint training, imprint training at birth, 12, 24 and 48 h after birth or imprint training only at birth, 12, 24, 48, or 72 h after birth. Foals then received minimal human handling until they were tested at 6 months. RESULTS: During training, time to complete exposure to the stimulus was significant for only 2 of 6 stimuli. Percentage change in baseline heart rate was significant for only 2 of 10 stimuli. These 4 effects were randomly spread across treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Neither the number of imprint training sessions (0, 1, or 4) nor the timing of imprint training sessions (none, birth, 12, 24, 48, or 72 h after birth) influenced the foal's behaviour at 6 months of age. POTENTIAL CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In this study, imprint training did not result in better behaved, less reactive foals. |
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Department of Animal Science, 2471 TAMUS, Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77845-2471, USA |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:12638787 |
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Goodwin, D.; Davidson, H.P.B.; Harris, P. |
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Title |
Foraging enrichment for stabled horses: effects on behaviour and selection |
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2002 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
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Equine Vet J |
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34 |
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7 |
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686-691 |
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Animal Feed; Animal Husbandry/*methods; Animal Welfare; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Female; Horse Diseases/*psychology; Horses/*physiology; Housing, Animal; Male; *Poaceae; *Stereotyped Behavior; Videotape Recording |
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The restricted access to pasture experienced by many competition horses has been linked to the exhibition of stereotypic and redirected behaviour patterns. It has been suggested that racehorses provided with more than one source of forage are less likely to perform these patterns; however, the reasons for this are currently unclear. To investigate this in 4 replicated trials, up to 12 horses were introduced into each of 2 identical stables containing a single forage, or 6 forages for 5 min. To detect novelty effects, in the first and third trials the single forage was hay. In the second and fourth, it was the preferred forage from the preceding trial. Trials were videotaped and 12 mutually exclusive behaviour patterns compared. When hay was presented as the single forage (Trials 1 and 3), all recorded behaviour patterns were significantly different between stables; e.g. during Trial 3 in the 'Single' stable, horses looked over the stable door more frequently (P<0.001), moved for longer (P<0.001), foraged on straw bedding longer (P<0.001), and exhibited behaviour indicative of motivation to search for alternative resources (P<0.001) more frequently. When a previously preferred forage was presented as the single forage (Trials 2 and 4) behaviour was also significantly different between stables, e.g in Trial 4 horses looked out over the stable door more frequently (P<0.005) and foraged for longer in their straw bedding (P<0.005). Further study is required to determine whether these effects persist over longer periods. However, these trials indicate that enrichment of the stable environment through provision of multiple forages may have welfare benefits for horses, in reducing straw consumption and facilitating the expression of highly motivated foraging behaviour. |
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Anthrozoology Institute, University of Southampton, UK |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:12455839 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1910 |
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