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Gomez Alvarez, C.B.; Rhodin, M.; Bobber, M.F.; Meyer, H.; Weishaupt, M.A.; Johnston, C.; Van Weeren, P.R. |
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Title |
The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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36 |
Pages |
445-451 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Head/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Lumbar Vertebrae/physiology; Male; Neck/*physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/physiology; Posture/*physiology; Sports; Thoracic Vertebrae/physiology; Weight-Bearing |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. OBJECTIVES: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. METHODS: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3 = as HNP2 with bridge of the nose behind the vertical; HNP4 = head and neck lowered, nose behind the vertical; HNP5 = head and neck in extreme high position; HNP6 = head and neck forward and downward. HNP1 was a speed-matched control (head and neck unrestrained). RESULTS: The head and neck positions affected only the flexion-extension motion. The positions in which the neck was extended (HNP2, 3, 5) increased extension in the anterior thoracic region, but increased flexion in the posterior thoracic and lumbar region. For HNP4 the pattern was the opposite. Positions 2, 3 and 5 reduced the flexion-extension range of motion (ROM) while HNP4 increased it. HNP5 was the only position that negatively affected intravertebral pattern symmetry and reduced hindlimb protraction. The stride length was significantly reduced at walk in positions 2, 3, 4 and 5. CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant influence of head/neck position on back kinematics. Elevated head and neck induce extension in the thoracic region and flexion in the lumbar region; besides reducing the sagittal range of motion. Lowered head and neck produces the opposite. A very high position of the head and neck seems to disturb normal kinematics. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study provides quantitative data on the effect of head/neck positions on thoracolumbar motion and may help in discussions on the ethical acceptability of some training methods. |
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Department of Equine Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 12, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands |
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PMID:17402464 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3702 |
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Author |
Bystrom, A.; Roepstorff, L.; Johnston, C. |
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Title |
Effects of draw reins on limb kinematics |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2006 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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36 |
Pages |
452-456 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Biomechanics; Exercise Test; Forelimb/physiology; Head/physiology; Hindlimb/physiology; Horses/*physiology; Humans; Movement/physiology; Neck/physiology; Physical Conditioning, Animal/*methods/*physiology; Weight-Bearing/physiology |
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REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: No data exist on the GRF-kinematics relation due to changes caused by equestrian interventions. HYPOTHESIS: Through the judicious use of draw reins the rider can influence the kinematics of the horse to meet stated goals of dressage training. Relating the results to previously published kinetic data of the same experiment implies a possible relationship between kinetics and kinematics. METHODS: The kinematics of 8 sound Swedish Warmblood horses were measured whilst the horses were being ridden with and without draw reins. Three conditions were evaluated: 1) draw reins only (DR), 2) combination of draw reins and normal reins (NR+DR) and 3) normal reins only (NR). RESULTS: Head and neck angles were significantly decreased by the draw rein but 4-5 times more so for DR when with NR+DR. The forelimb position at hoof lift-off was significantly more caudal with DR. In the hind limb the hip joint extended more quickly and the hock joint flexed more with NR+DR than with NR. Compared to DR the hip joint angular pattern was not significantly different, but the pelvis was more horizontal. CONCLUSION: Riding with a draw rein can have significant influence on the kinematics of the horse. Some of the observed changes can be coupled to changes in kinetics. The hock joint angle seems to be a fairly reliable indicator of load on the hind limb and the angle of femur appears important for hind limb propulsion, when considered in conjunction with the orientation of the pelvis. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: These findings are important for riders and trainers, as kinematic changes are what trainers observe. It is thereby important to ascertain which kinematic changes are consistently coupled to changes in kinetics in order for trainers to be able to judge correctly the success of intended goals. Further studies are warranted to validate and confirm suggested relationships between kinetics and kinematics. |
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Department of Equine Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden |
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PMID:17402465 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3701 |
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Author |
Real, L.A. |
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Title |
Animal choice behavior and the evolution of cognitive architecture |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1991 |
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Science (New York, N.Y.) |
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Science |
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253 |
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5023 |
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980-986 |
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Animals; Bees/genetics/*physiology; Biomechanics; *Choice Behavior; *Cognition; *Evolution; Mathematics; Models, Genetic; Probability |
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Animals process sensory information according to specific computational rules and, subsequently, form representations of their environments that form the basis for decisions and choices. The specific computational rules used by organisms will often be evolutionarily adaptive by generating higher probabilities of survival, reproduction, and resource acquisition. Experiments with enclosed colonies of bumblebees constrained to foraging on artificial flowers suggest that the bumblebee's cognitive architecture is designed to efficiently exploit floral resources from spatially structured environments given limits on memory and the neuronal processing of information. A non-linear relationship between the biomechanics of nectar extraction and rates of net energetic gain by individual bees may account for sensitivities to both the arithmetic mean and variance in reward distributions in flowers. Heuristic rules that lead to efficient resource exploitation may also lead to subjective misperception of likelihoods. Subjective probability formation may then be viewed as a problem in pattern recognition subject to specific sampling schemes and memory constraints. |
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Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599-3280 |
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0036-8075 |
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PMID:1887231 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2846 |
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Steiner, M. |
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Title |
Biomechanics of tendon healing |
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Journal Article |
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1982 |
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Journal of Biomechanics |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Biomech |
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15 |
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12 |
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951-958 |
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Achilles Tendon/injuries; Animals; Biomechanics; Rats; Tendon Injuries/pathology/*physiopathology; Tensile Strength; Time Factors; *Wound Healing |
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The biomechanics of tendon healing was investigated with unsutured rat achilles tendons. After two, three, and four weeks of healing tensile parameters were assayed with a bone-muscle-tendon-bone preparation elongated to failure at a controlled physiological strain rate. In the third week of healing, stiffness, strength, and energy absorbing capacity all increased approximately 50%. These changes correlated with early fibroplasia. In the fourth week of healing, strength, energy absorbing capacity and elongation to failure all increased relatively more than stiffness. Histologically, larger fibers with better longitudinal alignment developed during this period. At the end of four weeks the tendon's strength was approximately 25% of normal. To summarize, the return of stiffness in a healing tendon preparation correlated with the presence of fibroplasia and the return of other tensile parameters was a function of the amount and organization of the fibroplasia. |
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0021-9290 |
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PMID:7166555 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4448 |
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Holmstrom, M.; Fredricson, I.; Drevemo, S. |
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Biokinematic effects of collection on the trotting gaits in the elite dressage horse |
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Journal Article |
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1995 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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27 |
Issue |
4 |
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281-287 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Female; Gait/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Kinesics; Male; Video Recording |
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Trot in hand, working trot, collected trot, passage and piaffe of 6 Grand Prix dressage horses were recorded by high speed film (250 frames/s). Angular patterns and hoof trajectories of the left fore- and hindlimbs were analysed and presented as mean and standard deviation (s.d.) curves. Speed and stride length decreased and fore- and hind stance phase durations increased with collection resulting in no suspension in piaffe. The diagonal advanced placement was positive in all gaits except for piaffe. Most of the changes in forelimb angular patterns were effects of reduction in forelimb pendulation. The horses did not step under themselves more in collected trot, passage and piaffe than in trot in hand. The stifle and hock joints were more flexed at the start of the stance phase in piaffe and passage than in the other gaits. Flexion of the hock joint at the middle of the stance phase was largest in passage and piaffe. In spite of the limited number of horses the present study confirmed earlier observations of conformation and gaits in dressage horses. Hindlimb pendulation, femur and pelvis inclinations and elbow, carpal, stifle and hock joint angles seem to be the most significant angular measurements for dressage performance. |
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Swedish National Stud, Flyinge |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:8536664 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3742 |
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Clayton, H.M. |
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Comparison of the stride kinematics of the collected, working, medium and extended trot in horses |
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Journal Article |
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1994 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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26 |
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3 |
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230-234 |
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Analysis of Variance; Animals; Biomechanics; Female; Forelimb/anatomy & histology/physiology; Gait/*physiology; Hindlimb/anatomy & histology/physiology; Horses/anatomy & histology/*physiology; Locomotion/physiology; Male; Motion Pictures |
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Highly-trained dressage horses were studied to test the hypothesis that stride length is altered independently of stride duration in the transitions between the collected, working, medium and extended trot. Six well-trained dressage horses were filmed at a frame rate of 150 frames/s performing the collected, working, medium and extended trots in a sand arena. Temporal, linear and angular data were extracted from the films, with 4 strides being analysed for each horse and gait type. There were no significant asymmetries between the left and rights limbs or diagonals when data from the whole group were pooled, but 3 horses showed asymmetries in one or more variables (P < 0.01). Analysis of variance and post-hoc tests indicated that the speed increased significantly (P < 0.01) from the collected (3.20 m/s) to the working (3.61 m/s) to the medium (4.47 m/s) to the extended (4.93 m/s) trot. The increases in speed were associated with a significant increase in stride length from 250 cm in the collected trot, to 273 cm in the working trot, 326 cm in the medium trot and 355 cm in the extended trot (P < 0.01). The lengthening of the stride was a result of increases between each gait type in the over-reach distance, whereas the diagonal distance was significantly longer in the extended than the collected trot only (P < 0.01). The stride duration tended to decrease as speed increased, and the difference became significant between the collected and extended trots (P < 0.01). |
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Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:8542844 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3746 |
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Author |
Morales, J.L.; Manchado, M.; Vivo, J.; Galisteo, A.M.; Aguera, E.; Miro, F. |
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Angular kinematic patterns of limbs in elite and riding horses at trot |
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Journal Article |
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1998 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J |
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30 |
Issue |
6 |
Pages |
528-533 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; Breeding; Extremities/*physiology; Gait/*physiology; Horses/*physiology; Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; Joints/*physiology; Male; Video Recording |
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Normal speed videography was used to determine the angular parameters of 28 Spanish Thoroughbreds at trot. Horses were divided into 3 groups: Group UT, comprising 9 animals (provided by the VII National Stud, Cordoba, Spain) which had undergone no specific training programme and which were hand led at the trot; Group T, formed by 19 horses considered to be highly bred and trained, and which were also hand led; and Group RT, comprising the same horses as the latter group but this time trotted by a rider. Each animal was filmed 6 times from the right-hand side, using a Hi8 (25 Hz) video camera. Angular parameters for fore- and hindlimb joints were measured in each stride from computer-grabbed frames and entered into a spreadsheet for calculation; parameters included maximum and minimum angles, range of motion, and angles at landing, lift off and maximum hoof height; the times at which maximum angle, minimum angle, lift off and maximum hoof height occurred were calculated as percentages of total stride duration. Stride velocity (mean [s.d.]) was 4.01 (0.62), 3.60 (0.34) and 3.07 (0.36) m/s for Groups UT, T and RT, respectively. Data were then compared between Groups UT-T and Groups T-RT. Compared with Group UT, horses from Group T featured a shorter stance percentage (P<0.001) in both fore- and hindlimbs. The range of motion in forelimbs was smaller (P<0.05), due to lower retraction (P<0.001); moreover, maximum retraction appeared earlier (P<0.05). Greater scapular inclination was in evidence (P<0.05) and the shoulder joint extended further (P<0.05). Fore- and hind fetlock joints revealed a relatively shorter hyperextension period during the stance phase (P<0.01). Compared with Group T, horses from Group RT had a longer stance percentage, with belated maximum retraction of the fore- and hindlimbs. The range of movement in scapular inclination was greater (P<0.05), due to a smaller minimum angle (P<0.01), and the shoulder joint flexed more (P<0.05). The elbow joint extended more and for longer during the stance phase. Initial extension of the hip joint (P<0.05) and tarsus (P<0.001) lasted longer. The carpal and fore and hind fetlock joints recorded relatively longer hyperextension times, in addition to greater hyperextension during the stance phase. The results from the present study suggest that rider-effect must be taken in consideration when well gaited horses are selected for dressage purposes. |
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Department of Compared Anatomy and Pathology, University of Cordoba, Veterinary Faculty, Spain |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:9844972 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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3734 |
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