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	Author	Harlow, H.F.
	Title	Learning and satiation of response in intrinsically motivated complex puzzle performance by monkeys			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1950	Publication	Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Physiol Psychol
	Volume	43	Issue	4	Pages	289-294
	Keywords	Animals; Haplorhini; Learning; Motivation; Psychology; Satiation; Learning; Motivation; Psychology
	Abstract	Two rhesus monkeys, given 60 two-hour sessions with a six-device mechanical puzzle showed clear evidence of learning, the curve showing ratio of incorrect to correct responses appearing quite comparable to similar curves obtained during externally rewarded situations. When, on the thirteenth day of tests, the subjects were presented with the puzzle 100 times at 6-minute intervals, the number of devices manipulated decreased regularly throughout the day, although there was no significant change in the number of times the problem assembly was attacked.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0021-9940	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15436888			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	6550
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	Author	Shettleworth, S.J.
	Title	Foraging, memory, and constraints on learning			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1985	Publication	Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences	Abbreviated Journal	Ann N Y Acad Sci
	Volume	443	Issue		Pages	216-226
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild; Appetitive Behavior; Avoidance Learning; Birds; Conditioning, Classical; Discrimination Learning; Food Preferences; Memory; Mental Recall; Motivation; Predatory Behavior; Rats; *Taste
	Abstract
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0077-8923	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:3860072			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	384
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	Author	Rendall, D.; Cheney, D.L.; Seyfarth, R.M.
	Title	Proximate factors mediating “contact” calls in adult female baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus) and their infants			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2000	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	114	Issue	1	Pages	36-46
	Keywords	Animals; Animals, Wild; Botswana; Female; Maternal Behavior; Motivation; Orientation; Papio/psychology; Social Environment; Sound Spectrography; *Vocalization, Animal
	Abstract	“Contact” calls are widespread in social mammals and birds, but the proximate factors that motivate call production and mediate their contact function remain poorly specified. Field study of chacma baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus) revealed that contact barks in adult females were motivated by separation both from the group at large and from their dependent infants. A variety of social and ecological factors affect the probability of separation from either one or both. Results of simultaneous observations and a playback experiment indicate that the contact function of calling between mothers and infants was mediated by occasional maternal retrieval rather than coordinated call exchange. Mothers recognized the contact barks of their own infants and often were strongly motivated to locate them. However, mothers did not produce contact barks in reply unless they themselves were at risk of becoming separated from the group.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, USA. d.rendall@uleth.ca
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:10739310			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	695
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	Author	Akins, C.K.; Zentall, T.R.
	Title	Imitative learning in male Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) using the two-action method			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1996	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	110	Issue	3	Pages	316-320
	Keywords	Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Attention; Coturnix; Imitative Behavior; Male; Motivation; Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	The study of imitative learning in animals has suffered from the presence of a number of confounding motivational and attentional factors (e.g., social facilitation and stimulus enhancement). The two-action method avoids these problems by exposing observers to demonstrators performing a response (e.g., operating a treadle) using 1 of 2 distinctive topographies (e.g., by pecking or by stepping). Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) observers exposed to conspecific demonstrators showed a high correlation between the topography of the response they observed and the response they performed. These data provide strong evidence for the existence of true imitative learning in an active, precocious bird under conditions that control for alternative accounts.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506-0044, USA
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:8858851			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	254
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	Author	de Waal, F.B.M.; Davis, J.M.
	Title	Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Neuropsychologia	Abbreviated Journal	Neuropsychologia
	Volume	41	Issue	2	Pages	221-228
	Keywords	Animals; Attention; Cebus/psychology; Cooperative Behavior; Decision Making; Dominance-Subordination; Female; Male; Motivation; Reaction Time; Reinforcement Schedule; Social Behavior
	Abstract	Stable cooperation requires that each party's pay-offs exceed those available through individual action. The present experimental study on brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) investigated if decisions about cooperation are (a) guided by the amount of competition expected to follow the cooperation, and (b) made instantaneously or only after a period of familiarization. Pairs of adult monkeys were presented with a mutualistic cooperative task with variable opportunities for resource monopolization (clumped versus dispersed rewards), and partner relationships (kin versus nonkin). After pre-training, each pair of monkeys (N=11) was subjected to six tests, consisting of 15 2 min trials each, with rewards available to both parties. Clumped reward distribution had an immediate negative effect on cooperation: this effect was visible right from the start, and remained visible even if clumped trials alternated with dispersed trials. The drop in cooperation was far more dramatic for nonkin than kin, which was explained by the tendency of dominant nonkin to claim more than half of the rewards under the clumped condition. The immediacy of responses suggests a decision-making process based on predicted outcome of cooperation. Decisions about cooperation thus take into account both the opportunity for and the likelihood of subsequent competition over the spoils.
	Address	Living Links, Yerkes Primate Center, Emory University, 954 N. Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. dewaal@emory.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-3932	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12459220			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	182
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	Author	de Waal, F.B.
	Title	Food transfers through mesh in brown capuchins			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1997	Publication	Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Psychol
	Volume	111	Issue	4	Pages	370-378
	Keywords	Animals; Cebus/psychology; Feeding Behavior; Female; Food Preferences/psychology; Male; Motivation; Sex Factors; Social Behavior; Social Environment
	Abstract	Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) share food even if their partner is behind a mesh restraint. Pairs of adult capuchins were moved into a test chamber in which 1 monkey received cucumber pieces for 20 min and the other received apple slices during the following 20 min. Tolerant transfers of food occurred reciprocally among females: The rate of transfer from Female B to A in the second test phase varied with the rate from Female A to B in the first test phase. Several social mechanisms may explain this reciprocity. Whereas this study does not contradict cognitively complex explanations (e.g., mental record keeping of given and received food), the results are consistent with a rather simple explanation: that food sharing reflects a combination of affiliative tendency and high tolerance. The study suggests that sharing mechanisms may be different for adult male capuchins, with males sharing food more readily and less discriminatingly than females.
	Address	Yerkes Primate Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA. dewaal@emory.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0735-7036	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:9419882			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	198
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	Author	Massen, J.; Sterck, E.; de Vos, H.
	Title	Close social associations in animals and humans: functions and mechanisms of friendship			Type
	Year	2010	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	147	Issue	11	Pages	1379
	Keywords	Both humans and group-living animals associate and behave affiliatively more with some individuals than others. Human friendship has long been acknowledged, and recently scientists studying animal behaviour have started using the term friendship for close social associates in animals. Yet, while biologists describe friends as social tools to enhance fitness, social scientists describe human friendship as unconditional. We investigate whether these different descriptions reflect true differences in human friendship and animal close social associations or are a by-product of different research approaches: namely social scientists focussing on proximate and biologists on ultimate explanations. We first stress the importance of similar measures to determine close social associations, thereafter examine their ultimate benefits and proximate motivations, and discuss the latest findings on the central-neural regulation of social bonds. We conclude that both human friendship and animal close social associations are ultimately beneficial. On the proximate level, motivations for friendship in humans and for close social associations in animals are not necessarily based on benefits and are often unconditional. Moreover, humans share with many animals a similar physiological basis of sociality. Therefore, biologists and social scientist describe the same phenomenon, and the use of the term friendship for animals seems justified.
	Abstract	Both humans and group-living animals associate and behave affiliatively more with some individuals than others. Human friendship has long been acknowledged, and recently scientists studying animal behaviour have started using the term friendship for close social associates in animals. Yet, while biologists describe friends as social tools to enhance fitness, social scientists describe human friendship as unconditional. We investigate whether these different descriptions reflect true differences in human friendship and animal close social associations or are a by-product of different research approaches: namely social scientists focussing on proximate and biologists on ultimate explanations. We first stress the importance of similar measures to determine close social associations, thereafter examine their ultimate benefits and proximate motivations, and discuss the latest findings on the central-neural regulation of social bonds. We conclude that both human friendship and animal close social associations are ultimately beneficial. On the proximate level, motivations for friendship in humans and for close social associations in animals are not necessarily based on benefits and are often unconditional. Moreover, humans share with many animals a similar physiological basis of sociality. Therefore, biologists and social scientist describe the same phenomenon, and the use of the term friendship for animals seems justified.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5813
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	Author	Meehan, C.L.; Mench, J.A.
	Title	The challenge of challenge: Can problem solving opportunities enhance animal welfare?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	102	Issue	3-4	Pages	246-261
	Keywords	Cognition; Environmental enrichment; Challenge; Eustress; Problem solving; Intrinsic motivation
	Abstract	Cognitive mechanisms are an important part of the organization of the behavior systems of animals. In the wild, animals regularly face problems that they must overcome in order to survive and thrive. Solving such problems often requires animals to process, store, retrieve, and act upon information from the environment--in other words, to use their cognitive skills. For example, animals may have to use navigational, tool-making or cooperative social skills in order to procure their food. However, many enrichment programs for captive animals do not include the integration of these types of cognitive challenges. Thus, foraging enrichments typically are designed to facilitate the physical expression of feeding behaviors such as food-searching and food consumption, but not to facilitate complex problem solving behaviors related to food acquisition. Challenging animals by presenting them with problems is almost certainly a source of frustration and stress. However, we suggest here that this is an important, and even necessary, feature of an enrichment program, as long as animals also possess the skills and resources to effectively solve the problems with which they are presented. We discuss this with reference to theories about the emotional consequences of coping with challenge, the association between lack of challenge and the development of abnormal behavior, and the benefits of stress (arousal) in facilitating learning and memory of relevant skills. Much remains to be done to provide empirical support for these theories. However, they do point the way to a practical approach to improving animal welfare--to design enrichments to facilitate the cognitive mechanisms which underlie the performance of complex behaviors that cannot be performed due to the restrictions inherent to the captive environment.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
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	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2890
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	Author	Fischhoff, I.R.; Sundaresan, S.R.; Cordingley, J.; Larkin, H.M.; Sellier, M.-J.; Rubenstein, D.I.
	Title	Social relationships and reproductive state influence leadership roles in movements of plains zebra, Equus burchellii			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	5	Pages	825-831
	Keywords	collective movements; drinking; equid; Equus burchellii; foraging; group dynamics; motivation; plains zebra; reproductive status; social relationships
	Abstract	In animal groups, collective movements emerge from individual interactions. Biologists seek to identify how characteristics of actors in these groups, and their relationships, influence the decision-making process. We distinguished two basic factors determining leadership in group choices: identity and state. We hypothesized that identity is more important to leadership in groups with stable relationships, which permit the development of habitual roles. In groups with fluid membership, particular individuals or subgroups are less likely to emerge as consistent leaders. Instead, we predicted that movement initiation in unstable groups depends on individual state at the time of the decision. We characterized how identity and reproductive state influenced leadership patterns in the movements of plains zebra. As in many other mammals, lactation in this species significantly alters water and energy needs. We investigated leadership in tightly knit harems and loosely bonded herds of multiple harems. Harem females tended to have habitual roles in the initiation of harem movement. In herds, however, we found no consistent leaders among harems. At both levels of social organization, lactation was a key determinant of leadership. In harems, lactating females were more likely to initiate movement than nonlactating females. In turn, harems containing lactating females were more likely to lead herd movements. Thus, we conclude that social relationships and reproductive state together shape the interactions that produce group behaviours. One benefit to lactating females of leading herd movements is preferential access to scarce water. Thus, leadership roles in group decisions may have fitness consequences.
	Address
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	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
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	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @ room B 3.092			Serial	1825
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	Author	Petherick, J.C.; Seawright, E.; Waddington, D.
	Title	Influence of motivational state on choice of food or a dustbathing/foraging substrate by domestic hens			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1993	Publication	Behavioural Processes	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Process.
	Volume	28	Issue	3	Pages	209-220
	Keywords	Food; Learning; Litter; Motivation; Poultry; Preference
	Abstract	Domestic hens were trained to run a Y-maze and make an association between differently coloured doorways and access to food pellets or sand. The hens were tested for their choice of doorway when the goals were not visible from the choice point and when they were food or sand deprived. Hens made the choice appropriate to their deprivation state (correct choice) significantly more often for food than sand and were faster at choosing and entering the goal box when food deprived. In a follow up experiment, the goals were visible from the choice point. Again the hens chose correctly significantly more often when food than sand deprived and made the choice and entered the goal box faster when food deprived. Thus, failure to choose sand in the first experiment was not due to an inability to learn the association, but appears to result from a strong motivation to feed in the Y-maze, even when not food deprived, and a weak motivation to dustbathe or forage, even when sand deprived.
	Address
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language		Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN		ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3608
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