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Stevens, J.; Vervaecke, H.; De Vries, H.; Van Elsacker, L. |
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Title |
Social structures in Pan paniscus: testing the female bonding hypothesis |
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2006 |
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Primates |
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Primates |
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47 |
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3 |
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210-217 |
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Abstract Based on previous research in captivity, bonobos, Pan paniscus, have been called a female-bonded species. However, genetic and behavioural data indicate that wild females migrate. Bonding between these unrelated females would then be in contradiction with socio-ecological models. It has been argued that female bonding has been overemphasized in captive bonobos. We examine patterns of proximity, grooming and support behaviour in six well established captive groups of bonobos. We find that female bonding was not a typical characteristic of all captive bonobo groups. In only two groups there was a trend for females to prefer proximity with other females over association with males. We found no evidence that following or grooming between females was more frequent than between males and unrelated females or between males. Only in coalitions, females supported each other more than male-female or male-male dyads. We also investigated five mother-son pairs. Grooming was more frequent among mothers and sons than in any other dyad, but sons did not groom their mothers more than males groomed unrelated females. Mothers groomed their sons, or provided more support to them than females groomed or supported unrelated males. Thus, while bonds between females were clearly present, intersexual relations between males and either unrelated females or their mothers are of more, or equal importance. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2193 |
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Stevens, J.; Vervaecke, H.; de Vries, H.; Van Elsacker, L. |
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The influence of the steepness of dominance hierarchies on reciprocity and interchange in captive groups of bonobos (Pan paniscus) |
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Journal Article |
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2005 |
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Behaviour |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behaviour |
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142 |
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7 |
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941-960 |
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Biological market models explain variability in reciprocity and interchange between groups. In groups with a shallow dominance gradient, grooming will be mostly exchanged for itself (i.e. exchange will occur). In groups with steep dominance hierarchies, interchange is expected: individuals will groom higher ranking individuals to get access to limited resources or commodities such as support in conflicts, and grooming will be traded for these commodities. We examine patterns of reciprocity in grooming and support, and of interchange of grooming for support or for tolerance in six captive groups of bonobos. We test whether differences between groups in patterns of reciprocity and interchange can be attributed to differences in a measure of steepness of dominance hierarchies, which is based on dyadic agonistic interactions. We found that grooming was reciprocal in some, but not all groups. Support was highly reciprocal, but this was a side effect of dominance in most groups. Interchange between grooming and support was observed in some groups. Corroborating earlier findings, this was a side effect of individuals preferring high ranking individuals as grooming and support partners, possibly because these high-ranking individuals provide more efficient support in conflicts. There was no evidence for interchange of grooming for tolerance. Variability in grooming reciprocity was explained by differences in steepness of dominance hierarchies, as predicted by the biological market models. In groups with a shallow dominance hierarchy, grooming was more reciprocal. This was not true for reciprocity in support. There was some evidence that individuals groomed dominants more frequently in groups with a steep dominance hierarchy. The variation in interchange relations between grooming and support did not depend on the steepness of dominance hierarchies. We suggest that grooming in itself is a valuable commodity in bonobos, especially under captive conditions, which can be exchanged reciprocally. Bonobos may interchange grooming for another value equivalent, with food sharing as a very likely candidate. This interchange effects seem more dependent on potential to monopolise food than on steepness of dominance hierarchies per se. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2194 |
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Vervaecke, H.; de Vries, H.; van Elsacker, L. |
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Title |
The Pivotal Role Of Rank In Grooming And Support Behavior In A Captive Group Of Bonobos (Pan Paniscus) |
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2000 |
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Behaviour |
Abbreviated Journal |
Behaviour |
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137 |
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11 |
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1463-1485 |
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We investigated dyadic grooming relationships in a captive group of bonobos (Pan paniscus) and questioned what social function grooming fulfils in the 'market of services and favors'. Hereto we examined which of two theoretical models – grooming for support (Seyfarth, 1977, 1980) or grooming according to the similarity principle (de Waal & Luttrell, 1986) – best accounted for the observed grooming distribution. Similarity in traits did not correlate with increased grooming or close proximity among the individuals. Therefore, the similarity hypothesis was rejected. Seyfarth's model of rank-related grooming was largely confirmed. The animals distributed their grooming according to the rank of the receivers. We found an exchange between grooming and receipt of support. There was more grooming up than down the hierarchy. However, not all predictions about rank-related competition over grooming were confirmed. We found that dyadic grooming reciprocity indeed increased with decreasing rank distance. Yet, there was no increase of grooming within the dyad with decreasing rank distance and high ranking individuals were not competed over at the highest rates. The observed correlation between grooming and support received represents an important fit with Seyfarth's prediction, but does not allow for conclusions about underlying causal processes. Other causal explanations, besides the 'groom to receive support' hypothesis, that could explain a similar correlation are discussed. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2196 |
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Vervaecke, H.; de Vries, H.; van Elsacker, L. |
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Title |
Dominance and its Behavioral Measures in a Captive Group of Bonobos (Pan paniscus) |
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2000 |
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International Journal of Primatology |
Abbreviated Journal |
Int. J. Primatol. |
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21 |
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1 |
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47-68 |
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We investigated the existence of a social dominance hierarchy in the captive group of six adult bonobos at the Planckendael Zoo. We quantified the pattern of dyadic exchange of a number of behaviors to examine to what extent each behavior fits a linear rank order model. Following de Waal (1989), we distinguish three types of dominance: agonistic dominance, competitive ability and formal dominance. Fleeing upon aggression is a good measure of agonistic dominance. The agonistic dominance hierarchy in the study group shows significant and strong linearity. The rank order was: 1. female (22 yr), 2. female (15 yr)., 3. male (23 yr.), 4. female (15 yr.), 5. male (9 yr.), 6. male (10 yr.). As in the wild, the females occupy high ranks. There is prominent but nonexclusive female agonistic dominance. Teeth-baring does not fulfil the criteria of a formal submission signal. Peering is a request for tolerance of proximity. Since its direction within dyads is consistent with that of fleeing interactions, it is a useful additional measure to determine agonistic ranks in bonobos. In competitive situations, the females acquire more food than other group members do. The rank obtained from access to food resources differs from the agonistic rank due to female intrasexual social tolerance, expressed in food sharing. We typify the dominance styles in the group as female intrasexual tolerance and male challenging of rank differences. The agonistic rank order correlates significantly with age and has a strong predictive value for other social behaviors. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2197 |
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VanDierendonck, M.C., de Vries, H., Schilder, M.B.H. |
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An Analysis of Dominance, Its Behavioural Parameters and Possible Determinants in a Herd of Icelandic horses in captivity |
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1995 |
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Netherlands Journal of Zoology |
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Netherl. J. Zool. |
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45 |
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3-4 |
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362-385 |
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Dominance; rank order; horses; Icelandic horses. |
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Feral horses are social animals, which have to rely on survival strategies centered on the formation of cohesive social bonds within their bands. Many problems in the husbandry of social animals such as horses, are due to the fact that the limits of their adaptive abilities are exceeded. Evidence suggests that the fundamental social characteristics of domestic horses have remained relatively unchanged. The social structure, social strategies and social interactions were investigated (3 non-consecutive years, 24 hr per day for several weeks) in long term established groups of domestic horses (mares and geldings of all ages) and a few small introduced groups, kept in (semi)natural environments. The general aim was to investigate the social needs of domestic horses. The social life of domestic horses was characterised by long lasting bonds with preferred partners which were established and maintained by allogrooming, play, proximity and dominance behaviours. Bonding partners were mainly found within the same sex-age group, but adult geldings also bonded with sub-adult mares and geldings. Adult mares were clustered in a group, while the other animals formed a second group. Among the adult mares, subgroups according to reproductive state were formed. Individuals regulated their social network by interfering with interactions between other members of the herd, which in itself is complex. An intervention is a behavioural action of one animal that actively interferes with an ongoing interaction between a dyad with the apparent aim of altering that interaction. This was verified by post-hoc analyses of disturbed and undisturbed interactions. Interventions in allogrooming or play were performed significantly more often when at least one member of the initial dyad was a preferred partner of, or familiar to (within the small introduced bands) the intervener. The stronger the preferred association in allogrooming between the intervener and member(s) of the initial dyad, the higher the probability the intervener would displace one initial member and continue allogrooming with the other. Just five behaviours were extracted which reliably reflected the dominance relations among horses. Aggression with the hind quarters was used both offensively and defensively and therefore not suitable as a reliable parameter. Individual dominance relationships were related to social experience. The implications of these findings for horse husbandry were assessed. It is argued that the execution of affiliative behaviours may be rewarding in itself, and therefore always will be a highly motivated behaviour. It is shown that social positive physical interactions (allogrooming, play) with other horses is an ethological need and therefore indispensable in modern husbandry systems. Ethological needs are so important for the animal that husbandry systems that lack the possibilities to execute such behaviours will cause chronic stress. It is concluded that all horses need physical social contact, and that horses, which lack appropriate social learning experiences during ontogeny, may be hampered in their social functioning later in life. Solutions for problems, including dominance problems, in individual social housing and group housing are presented. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2368 |
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de Vries, H. |
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An improved test of linearity in dominance hierarchies containing unknown or tied relationships |
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1995 |
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Animal Behaviour. |
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Anim. Behav. |
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50 |
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5 |
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1375-1389 |
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Appleby (1983, Anim. Behav., 31, 600-608) described a statistical test, based on the work of Kendall (1962, Rank Correlation Methods), for the significance of linearity in dominance hierarchies. He suggested that unknown relationships should be assigned the value 1/2 and that subsequently the same test procedure can be used. In this paper it is shown that incorrect results are obtained by this method whenever there are unknown relationships. Values of the linearity index are systematically too low. P-values can be too high (underestimating the significance) or too low (overestimating), and seem to differ by not much more than a factor two (respectively a half) from the correct P-value. An improved method is developed for testing linearity in a set of dominance relationships containing unknown relationships. Furthermore, it is argued that, if one admits the possibility of tied dominance relationships, which should indeed be assigned the value 1/2, Landau's linearity index is to be preferred to Kendall's index. A randomization test is developed for assessing the significance of linearity or non-linearity in a set of dominance relationships containing unknown or tied relationships. The test statistic employed in this testing procedure is based on Landau's linearity index, but takes the unknown and tied relationships into account. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4284 |
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Bouskila, A.,; Lourie,E.; de Vries, H.; Hermans, Z.M .; van Dierendonck, M. |
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Sex, but not relatedness nor age, affect the social network of horses in a semi-natural reserve |
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2015 |
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Proceedings of the 3. International Equine Science Meeting |
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Proc. 3. Int. Equine. Sci. Mtg |
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For some time now, social network analysis provides tools to describe concisely the social structure of animals. Nevertheless, the factors that shape the social network and determine the frequency of different types of affiliations are often unclear. For example, the effects of relatedness on social networks have been only studied on relatively few species. Both among social or sub-social species the effects ranged from no effect to a substantial effect. Here we test the hypothesis that relatedness has an effect on the social network of horses (Equus caballus) that live freely in semi-natural conditions, and specifically, that individuals with high values of relatedness to their neighbors in the network will have fewer links Wolf et al, 2011). This hypothesis is based on the notion that related individuals have common interests and are likely to assist each other, and may need less links to other, unrelated individuals. In addition, individuals of similar age and sex are likely to have common needs, and thus are more likely to be associated. We thus tested a second hypothesis: homophily to individuals with similar age and sex will have a role in determining the associations within the social network. The field study was conducted on 27 horses in the Blauwe Kamer reserve in the Netherlands (1.1 sq km). We videotaped horses and their groups and used the information from 22 horses, after excluding the five foals from the analysis. Relatedness was calculated from the pedigree, which was based on parentage, determined by DNA analysis. The social network was constructed based on spatial proximity data. We assessed the influence of relatedness, age-homophily and sex-homophily on the network structure with Multiple Regression Quadratic Assignment Procedure (MRQAP) (Krackhardt 1988), with the R package sna. The results show that there was no significant effect of relatedness on the network, nor an effect of age-homophily. Nevertheless, we found a significant effect of sex-homophily, the tendency of individuals to associate with individuals of the same sex. We argue that the lack of a relatedness effect is not likely to have been caused due to the inability to detect who is kin. The structured social system in horses includes strong associations between often unrelated individuals, alongside with young individuals leaving their natal harem as part of the inherent inbreeding avoidance (Linklater & Cameron 2009; Boyd et al. in press). The significant effect of sex-homophily could stem from the protection females get from associations with other females, e.g., in the reduction of harassment from males. Previous studies on feral horses showed that mares that were better connected with other females in their harem benefited from higher survival rates to their foals (Cameron et al. 2009). The associations among bachelor males could also contribute to the strength of the sex-homophily effect.
In order to generalize from our results, one needs to examine additional populations of horses, because the conditions in the Blauwe Kamer reserve may not be representative, mainly due to the limited opportunity for dispersal in a restricted area.
Keywords: Long-term affiliation; spatial proximity, kin detection
Boyd, L., Scorolli, A. L., Nowzari, H., & Bouskila, A. (2016). Chapter 2: Social organization. In J. I. Ransom, & P. Kaczensky (Eds.), Wild equids. Baltimore, Maryland (in press): The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Cameron, E. Z., Setsaas, T. H., & Linklater, W. L. (2009). Social bonds between unrelated females increase reproductive success in feral horses. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(33), 13850-13853
Krackhardt, D. (1988). Predicting with networks: Nonparametric multiple regression analysis of dyadic data. Social Networks, 10(4), 359-381.
Linklater, W. L., & Cameron, E. Z. (2009). Social dispersal but with philopatry reveals incest avoidance in a polygynous ungulate. Animal Behaviour, 77(5), 1085-1093.
Wolf, J. B., Traulsen, A., & James, R. (2011). Exploring the link between genetic relatedness r and social contact structure k in animal social networks. The American Naturalist, 177(1), 135-142. |
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Bouskila, A. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5881 |
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