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	Author	Meehan, C.L.; Mench, J.A.
	Title	The challenge of challenge: Can problem solving opportunities enhance animal welfare?			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Applied Animal Behaviour Science	Abbreviated Journal	Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
	Volume	102	Issue	3-4	Pages	246-261
	Keywords	Cognition; Environmental enrichment; Challenge; Eustress; Problem solving; Intrinsic motivation
	Abstract	Cognitive mechanisms are an important part of the organization of the behavior systems of animals. In the wild, animals regularly face problems that they must overcome in order to survive and thrive. Solving such problems often requires animals to process, store, retrieve, and act upon information from the environment--in other words, to use their cognitive skills. For example, animals may have to use navigational, tool-making or cooperative social skills in order to procure their food. However, many enrichment programs for captive animals do not include the integration of these types of cognitive challenges. Thus, foraging enrichments typically are designed to facilitate the physical expression of feeding behaviors such as food-searching and food consumption, but not to facilitate complex problem solving behaviors related to food acquisition. Challenging animals by presenting them with problems is almost certainly a source of frustration and stress. However, we suggest here that this is an important, and even necessary, feature of an enrichment program, as long as animals also possess the skills and resources to effectively solve the problems with which they are presented. We discuss this with reference to theories about the emotional consequences of coping with challenge, the association between lack of challenge and the development of abnormal behavior, and the benefits of stress (arousal) in facilitating learning and memory of relevant skills. Much remains to be done to provide empirical support for these theories. However, they do point the way to a practical approach to improving animal welfare--to design enrichments to facilitate the cognitive mechanisms which underlie the performance of complex behaviors that cannot be performed due to the restrictions inherent to the captive environment.
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	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	2890
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	Author	Fischhoff, I.R.; Sundaresan, S.R.; Cordingley, J.; Larkin, H.M.; Sellier, M.-J.; Rubenstein, D.I.
	Title	Social relationships and reproductive state influence leadership roles in movements of plains zebra, Equus burchellii			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	5	Pages	825-831
	Keywords	collective movements; drinking; equid; Equus burchellii; foraging; group dynamics; motivation; plains zebra; reproductive status; social relationships
	Abstract	In animal groups, collective movements emerge from individual interactions. Biologists seek to identify how characteristics of actors in these groups, and their relationships, influence the decision-making process. We distinguished two basic factors determining leadership in group choices: identity and state. We hypothesized that identity is more important to leadership in groups with stable relationships, which permit the development of habitual roles. In groups with fluid membership, particular individuals or subgroups are less likely to emerge as consistent leaders. Instead, we predicted that movement initiation in unstable groups depends on individual state at the time of the decision. We characterized how identity and reproductive state influenced leadership patterns in the movements of plains zebra. As in many other mammals, lactation in this species significantly alters water and energy needs. We investigated leadership in tightly knit harems and loosely bonded herds of multiple harems. Harem females tended to have habitual roles in the initiation of harem movement. In herds, however, we found no consistent leaders among harems. At both levels of social organization, lactation was a key determinant of leadership. In harems, lactating females were more likely to initiate movement than nonlactating females. In turn, harems containing lactating females were more likely to lead herd movements. Thus, we conclude that social relationships and reproductive state together shape the interactions that produce group behaviours. One benefit to lactating females of leading herd movements is preferential access to scarce water. Thus, leadership roles in group decisions may have fitness consequences.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @ room B 3.092			Serial	1825
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	Author	Petherick, J.C.; Seawright, E.; Waddington, D.
	Title	Influence of motivational state on choice of food or a dustbathing/foraging substrate by domestic hens			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1993	Publication	Behavioural Processes	Abbreviated Journal	Behav. Process.
	Volume	28	Issue	3	Pages	209-220
	Keywords	Food; Learning; Litter; Motivation; Poultry; Preference
	Abstract	Domestic hens were trained to run a Y-maze and make an association between differently coloured doorways and access to food pellets or sand. The hens were tested for their choice of doorway when the goals were not visible from the choice point and when they were food or sand deprived. Hens made the choice appropriate to their deprivation state (correct choice) significantly more often for food than sand and were faster at choosing and entering the goal box when food deprived. In a follow up experiment, the goals were visible from the choice point. Again the hens chose correctly significantly more often when food than sand deprived and made the choice and entered the goal box faster when food deprived. Thus, failure to choose sand in the first experiment was not due to an inability to learn the association, but appears to result from a strong motivation to feed in the Y-maze, even when not food deprived, and a weak motivation to dustbathe or forage, even when sand deprived.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	3608
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	Author	Lingle, S.; Rendall, D.; Wilson, W.F.; DeYoung, R.W.; Pellis, S.M.
	Title	Altruism and recognition in the antipredator defence of deer: 2. Why mule deer help nonoffspring fawns			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2007	Publication	Animal Behaviour.	Abbreviated Journal	Anim. Behav.
	Volume	73	Issue	5	Pages	907-916
	Keywords	aggressive defence; altruism; behavioural discrimination; cooperation; motivational constraint; mule deer; Odocoileus hemionus; Odocoileus virginianus; recognition error; white-tailed deer
	Abstract	Both white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, and mule deer, O. hemionus, females defend fawns against coyotes, Canis latrans, but only mule deer defend nonoffspring conspecific and heterospecific fawns. During a predator attack, females may have to decide whether to defend a fawn while having imperfect information on its identity obtained from hearing a few distress calls. Although imperfect recognition can influence altruistic behaviour, few empirical studies have considered this point when testing functional explanations for altruism. We designed a series of playback experiments with fawn distress calls to test alternative hypotheses (by-product of parental care, kin selection, reciprocal altruism) for the mule deer's defence of nonoffspring, specifically allowing for the possibility that females mistake these fawns for their own. White-tailed deer females approached the speaker only when distress calls of white-tailed deer fawns were played and when their own fawn was hidden, suggesting that fawn defence was strictly a matter of parental care in this species. In contrast, mule deer females responded similarly and strongly, regardless of the caller's identity, the female's reproductive state (mother or nonmother) or the presence of their own offspring. The failure of mule deer females to adjust their responses to these conditions suggests that they do not defend nonoffspring because they mistake them for their own fawns. The lack of behavioural discrimination also suggests that kin selection, reciprocal altruism and defence of the offspring's area are unlikely to explain the mule deer's defence of nonoffspring. We identify causal and functional questions that still need to be addressed to understand why mule deer defend fawns so indiscriminately.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	4211
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	Author	Massen, J.; Sterck, E.; de Vos, H.
	Title	Close social associations in animals and humans: functions and mechanisms of friendship			Type
	Year	2010	Publication	Behaviour	Abbreviated Journal
	Volume	147	Issue	11	Pages	1379
	Keywords	Both humans and group-living animals associate and behave affiliatively more with some individuals than others. Human friendship has long been acknowledged, and recently scientists studying animal behaviour have started using the term friendship for close social associates in animals. Yet, while biologists describe friends as social tools to enhance fitness, social scientists describe human friendship as unconditional. We investigate whether these different descriptions reflect true differences in human friendship and animal close social associations or are a by-product of different research approaches: namely social scientists focussing on proximate and biologists on ultimate explanations. We first stress the importance of similar measures to determine close social associations, thereafter examine their ultimate benefits and proximate motivations, and discuss the latest findings on the central-neural regulation of social bonds. We conclude that both human friendship and animal close social associations are ultimately beneficial. On the proximate level, motivations for friendship in humans and for close social associations in animals are not necessarily based on benefits and are often unconditional. Moreover, humans share with many animals a similar physiological basis of sociality. Therefore, biologists and social scientist describe the same phenomenon, and the use of the term friendship for animals seems justified.
	Abstract	Both humans and group-living animals associate and behave affiliatively more with some individuals than others. Human friendship has long been acknowledged, and recently scientists studying animal behaviour have started using the term friendship for close social associates in animals. Yet, while biologists describe friends as social tools to enhance fitness, social scientists describe human friendship as unconditional. We investigate whether these different descriptions reflect true differences in human friendship and animal close social associations or are a by-product of different research approaches: namely social scientists focussing on proximate and biologists on ultimate explanations. We first stress the importance of similar measures to determine close social associations, thereafter examine their ultimate benefits and proximate motivations, and discuss the latest findings on the central-neural regulation of social bonds. We conclude that both human friendship and animal close social associations are ultimately beneficial. On the proximate level, motivations for friendship in humans and for close social associations in animals are not necessarily based on benefits and are often unconditional. Moreover, humans share with many animals a similar physiological basis of sociality. Therefore, biologists and social scientist describe the same phenomenon, and the use of the term friendship for animals seems justified.
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	Notes				Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	5813
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	Author	Lonon, A.M.; Zentall, T.R.
	Title	Transfer of value from S+ to S- in simultaneous discriminations in humans			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1999	Publication	The American journal of psychology	Abbreviated Journal	Am J Psychol
	Volume	112	Issue	1	Pages	21-39
	Keywords	Adolescent; Adult; Animals; Color Perception; Columbidae; Conditioning, Classical; Discrimination Learning; Female; Humans; Male; Middle Aged; Motivation; Orientation; Pattern Recognition, Visual; Psychomotor Performance; Reaction Time; *Transfer (Psychology)
	Abstract	When animals learn a simultaneous discrimination, some of the value of the positive stimulus (S+) appears to transfer to the negative stimulus (S-). The present experiments demonstrate that such value transfer can also be found in humans. In Experiment 1 humans were trained on 2 simple simultaneous discriminations, the first between a highly positive stimulus, A (1,000 points); and a negative stimulus, B (0 points); and the second between a less positive stimulus, C (100 points); and a negative stimulus, D (0 points). On test trials, most participants preferred B over D. In Experiments 2 and 3 the value of the 2 original discriminations was equated in training (A[100]B[0] and C[100]D[0]). In Experiment 2 the values of the positive stimuli were then altered (A[1,000]C[0]); again, most participants preferred B over D. In Experiment 3, however, when the values of B and D were altered (B[1,000]D[0]), participants were indifferent to A and C. Thus, the mechanism that underlies value transfer in humans appears to be related to Pavlovian second-order conditioning. Similar mechanisms may be involved in assimilation processes in social contexts.
	Address	University of Kentucky, USA
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	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
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	ISSN	0002-9556	ISBN		Medium
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	Notes	PMID:10696277			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	249
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	Author	Harlow, H.F.
	Title	Learning and satiation of response in intrinsically motivated complex puzzle performance by monkeys			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1950	Publication	Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology	Abbreviated Journal	J Comp Physiol Psychol
	Volume	43	Issue	4	Pages	289-294
	Keywords	Animals; Haplorhini; Learning; Motivation; Psychology; Satiation; Learning; Motivation; Psychology
	Abstract	Two rhesus monkeys, given 60 two-hour sessions with a six-device mechanical puzzle showed clear evidence of learning, the curve showing ratio of incorrect to correct responses appearing quite comparable to similar curves obtained during externally rewarded situations. When, on the thirteenth day of tests, the subjects were presented with the puzzle 100 times at 6-minute intervals, the number of devices manipulated decreased regularly throughout the day, although there was no significant change in the number of times the problem assembly was attacked.
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	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
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	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0021-9940	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:15436888			Approved	no
	Call Number	Equine Behaviour @ team @			Serial	6550
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	Author	Zentall, T.R.; Roper, K.L.; Sherburne, L.M.
	Title	Most directed forgetting in pigeons can be attributed to the absence of reinforcement on forget trials during training or to other procedural artifacts			Type	Journal Article
	Year	1995	Publication	Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior	Abbreviated Journal	J Exp Anal Behav
	Volume	63	Issue	2	Pages	127-137
	Keywords	Animals; Attention; Color Perception; Columbidae; Cues; Discrimination Learning; Mental Recall; Motivation; Pattern Recognition, Visual; Reinforcement Schedule; Retention (Psychology)
	Abstract	In research on directed forgetting in pigeons using delayed matching procedures, remember cues, presented in the delay interval between sample and comparisons, have been followed by comparisons (i.e., a memory test), whereas forget cues have been followed by one of a number of different sample-independent events. The source of directed forgetting in delayed matching to sample in pigeons was examined in a 2 x 2 design by independently manipulating whether or not forget-cue trials in training ended with reinforcement and whether or not forget-cue trials in training included a simultaneous discrimination (involving stimuli other than those used in the matching task). Results were consistent with the hypothesis that reinforced responding following forget cues is sufficient to eliminate performance deficits on forget-cue probe trials. Only when reinforcement was omitted on forget-cue trials in training (whether a discrimination was required or not) was there a decrement in accuracy on forget-cue probe trials. When reinforcement is present, however, the pattern of responding established during and following a forget cue in training may also play a role in the directed forgetting effect. These findings support the view that much of the evidence for directed forgetting using matching procedures may result from motivational and behavioral artifacts rather than the loss of memory.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
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	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0022-5002	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:7714447			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	256
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	Author	de Waal, F.B.M.; Davis, J.M.
	Title	Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Neuropsychologia	Abbreviated Journal	Neuropsychologia
	Volume	41	Issue	2	Pages	221-228
	Keywords	Animals; Attention; Cebus/psychology; Cooperative Behavior; Decision Making; Dominance-Subordination; Female; Male; Motivation; Reaction Time; Reinforcement Schedule; Social Behavior
	Abstract	Stable cooperation requires that each party's pay-offs exceed those available through individual action. The present experimental study on brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) investigated if decisions about cooperation are (a) guided by the amount of competition expected to follow the cooperation, and (b) made instantaneously or only after a period of familiarization. Pairs of adult monkeys were presented with a mutualistic cooperative task with variable opportunities for resource monopolization (clumped versus dispersed rewards), and partner relationships (kin versus nonkin). After pre-training, each pair of monkeys (N=11) was subjected to six tests, consisting of 15 2 min trials each, with rewards available to both parties. Clumped reward distribution had an immediate negative effect on cooperation: this effect was visible right from the start, and remained visible even if clumped trials alternated with dispersed trials. The drop in cooperation was far more dramatic for nonkin than kin, which was explained by the tendency of dominant nonkin to claim more than half of the rewards under the clumped condition. The immediacy of responses suggests a decision-making process based on predicted outcome of cooperation. Decisions about cooperation thus take into account both the opportunity for and the likelihood of subsequent competition over the spoils.
	Address	Living Links, Yerkes Primate Center, Emory University, 954 N. Gatewood Road, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. dewaal@emory.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0028-3932	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12459220			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	182
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	Author	Seyfarth, R.M.; Cheney, D.L.
	Title	Signalers and receivers in animal communication			Type	Journal Article
	Year	2003	Publication	Annual review of psychology	Abbreviated Journal	Annu Rev Psychol
	Volume	54	Issue		Pages	145-173
	Keywords	Affect; Animal Communication; Animals; Arousal; Auditory Perception; Motivation; Social Behavior; Social Environment; Species Specificity; *Vocalization, Animal
	Abstract	In animal communication natural selection favors callers who vocalize to affect the behavior of listeners and listeners who acquire information from vocalizations, using this information to represent their environment. The acquisition of information in the wild is similar to the learning that occurs in laboratory conditioning experiments. It also has some parallels with language. The dichotomous view that animal signals must be either referential or emotional is false, because they can easily be both: The mechanisms that cause a signaler to vocalize do not limit a listener's ability to extract information from the call. The inability of most animals to recognize the mental states of others distinguishes animal communication most clearly from human language. Whereas signalers may vocalize to change a listener's behavior, they do not call to inform others. Listeners acquire information from signalers who do not, in the human sense, intend to provide it.
	Address	Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA. seyfarth@psych.upenn.edu
	Corporate Author				Thesis
	Publisher		Place of Publication		Editor
	Language	English	Summary Language		Original Title
	Series Editor		Series Title		Abbreviated Series Title
	Series Volume		Series Issue		Edition
	ISSN	0066-4308	ISBN		Medium
	Area		Expedition		Conference
	Notes	PMID:12359915			Approved	no
	Call Number	refbase @ user @			Serial	690
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