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Lejeune, H., Macar, F., & Zakay, D. (1999). Attention and timing: dual-task performance in pigeons. Behav. Process., 45(1-3), 141–157.
Abstract: Pigeons were exposed to an analog of a `dual-task' procedure used to test attentional models of timing in humans. After separate training on an auditory duration discrimination and on a variable ratio (VR) schedule, VR episodes lasting for 5 s were superimposed on the stimuli to be timed, either early (E) or late (L) during the trial. Trials with VR yielded underestimation of the target durations (increased % of `short' choices), relative to trials without VR, and this effect was stronger under the L than under the E condition. Data were similar to those collected with humans and support attentional models of timing according to which the simultaneous non-timing task uses processing resources which are diverted from the timing mechanisms.
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Shoshani, J., Kupsky, W. J., & Marchant, G. H. (2006). Elephant brain. Part I: gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution. Brain Res Bull, 70(2), 124–157.
Abstract: We report morphological data on brains of four African, Loxodonta africana, and three Asian elephants, Elephas maximus, and compare findings to literature. Brains exhibit a gyral pattern more complex and with more numerous gyri than in primates, humans included, and in carnivores, but less complex than in cetaceans. Cerebral frontal, parietal, temporal, limbic, and insular lobes are well developed, whereas the occipital lobe is relatively small. The insula is not as opercularized as in man. The temporal lobe is disproportionately large and expands laterally. Humans and elephants have three parallel temporal gyri: superior, middle, and inferior. Hippocampal sizes in elephants and humans are comparable, but proportionally smaller in elephant. A possible carotid rete was observed at the base of the brain. Brain size appears to be related to body size, ecology, sociality, and longevity. Elephant adult brain averages 4783 g, the largest among living and extinct terrestrial mammals; elephant neonate brain averages 50% of its adult brain weight (25% in humans). Cerebellar weight averages 18.6% of brain (1.8 times larger than in humans). During evolution, encephalization quotient has increased by 10-fold (0.2 for extinct Moeritherium, approximately 2.0 for extant elephants). We present 20 figures of the elephant brain, 16 of which contain new material. Similarities between human and elephant brains could be due to convergent evolution; both display mosaic characters and are highly derived mammals. Humans and elephants use and make tools and show a range of complex learning skills and behaviors. In elephants, the large amount of cerebral cortex, especially in the temporal lobe, and the well-developed olfactory system, structures associated with complex learning and behavioral functions in humans, may provide the substrate for such complex skills and behavior.
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Leliveld, L. M. C., Düpjan, S., Tuchscherer, A., & Puppe, B. (2016). Behavioural and physiological measures indicate subtle variations in the emotional valence of young pigs. Physiol. Behav., 157, 116–124.
Abstract: Abstract In the study of animal emotions, emotional valence has been found to be difficult to measure. Many studies of farm animals' emotions have therefore focussed on the identification of indicators of strong, mainly negative, emotions. However, subtle variations in emotional valence, such as those caused by rather moderate differences in husbandry conditions, may also affect animals' mood and welfare when such variations occur consistently. In this study, we investigated whether repeated moderate aversive or rewarding events could lead to measurable differences in emotional valence in young, weaned pigs. We conditioned 105 female pigs in a test arena to either a repeated startling procedure (sudden noises or appearances of objects) or a repeated rewarding procedure (applesauce, toy and straw) over 11 sessions. Control pigs were also regularly exposed to the same test arena but without conditioning. Before and after conditioning, we measured heart rate and its variability as well as the behavioural reactions of the subjects in the test arena, with a special focus on detailed acoustic analyses of their vocalisations. The behavioural and heart rate measures were analysed as changes compared to the baseline values before conditioning. A limited number of the putative indicators of emotional valence were affected by the conditioning. We found that the negatively conditioned pigs showed changes that were significantly different from those in control pigs, namely a decrease in locomotion and an increase in standing. The positively conditioned pigs, however, showed a stronger increase in heart rate and a smaller decrease in SDNN (a heart rate variability parameter indicating changes in autonomic regulation) compared to the controls. Compared to the negatively conditioned pigs, the positively conditioned pigs produced fewer vocalisations overall as well as fewer low-frequency grunts but more high-frequency grunts. The low-frequency grunts of the negatively conditioned pigs also showed lower frequency parameters (bandwidth, maximum frequency, 25% and 50% quartiles) compared to those of the positively conditioned pigs. In any of the statistically significant results, the conditioning accounted for 1.5–11.9% of variability in the outcome variable. Hence, we conclude that repeated moderate aversive and rewarding events have weak but measurable effects on some aspects of behaviour and physiology in young pigs, possibly indicating changes in emotional valence, which could ultimately affect their welfare. The combination of ethophysiological indicators, i.e., the concurrent examination of heart rate measures, behavioural responses and especially vocalisation patterns, as used in the current study, might be a useful way of examining subtle effects on emotional valence in further studies.
Keywords: Emotion; Heart rate; Vocalisation; Emotional valence; Animal welfare; Domestic pig
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Vieuille, C., Berger, F., Le Pape, G., & Bellanger, D. (2003). Sow behaviour involved in the crushing of piglets in outdoor farrowing huts--a brief report. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 80(2), 109–115.
Abstract: This study focuses on maternal activities involved in the trapping of piglets by the sow's body in outdoor farrowing systems and examine the mother-piglet context leading either to the death of piglets or to their survival. The behaviour of six Large-WhitexLandrace sows and their litters was continuously video recorded at their first and second parity, during the 40 h following parturition. Crushing mainly occurred at evening and night, during the first 12 h of farrowing and involved changes between lying, sitting and standing positions, as well as between udder and side lying. No piglet died from savaging. Nevertheless, aggressive behaviours of sows were observed, particularly in their first maternal experience. The immediate context of trapping was related to the labour of the sow and to the feeding and resting of piglets. The immediate crushing context was related to active avoidance of restless piglets while lying down, as well as sitting and standing behaviours. These results are discussed in terms of differential reactions of the sow to suckling attempts of piglets.
Keywords: Pig-maternal behaviour; Crushing; Free-ranging; Welfare
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Boray, J. C. (1969). Experimental fascioliasis in Australia. Adv Parasitol, 7, 95–210.
Keywords: Adaptation, Biological; Adaptation, Physiological; Animal Nutrition Physiology; Animals; Animals, Laboratory; Australia; Cattle; *Cattle Diseases/pathology; Climate; *Disease Vectors; Ecology; Electron Transport; Estivation; Fasciola hepatica/enzymology/*growth & development/metabolism/physiology; Fascioliasis/epidemiology/immunology/*prevention & control/veterinary; Glycolysis; Guinea Pigs; Horses; Humans; Larva/growth & development/physiology; Marsupialia; Metamorphosis, Biological; Mice; New Guinea; New Zealand; Parasite Egg Count; Rats; Seasons; Sheep; *Sheep Diseases/pathology
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Carroll, J., Murphy, C. J., Neitz, M., Hoeve, J. N., & Neitz, J. (2001). Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in the horse. J Vis, 1(2), 80–87.
Abstract: Horses, like other ungulates, are active in the day, at dusk, dawn, and night; and, they have eyes designed to have both high sensitivity for vision in dim light and good visual acuity under higher light levels (Walls, 1942). Typically, daytime activity is associated with the presence of multiple cone classes and color-vision capacity (Jacobs, 1993). Previous studies in other ungulates, such as pigs, goats, cows, sheep and deer, have shown that they have two spectrally different cone types, and hence, at least the photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision (Neitz & Jacobs, 1989; Jacobs, Deegan II, Neitz, Murphy, Miller, & Marchinton, 1994; Jacobs, Deegan II, & Neitz, 1998). Here, electroretinogram flicker photometry was used to measure the spectral sensitivities of the cones in the domestic horse (Equus caballus). Two distinct spectral mechanisms were identified and are consistent with the presence of a short-wavelength-sensitive (S) and a middle-to-long-wavelength-sensitive (M/L) cone. The spectral sensitivity of the S cone was estimated to have a peak of 428 nm, while the M/L cone had a peak of 539 nm. These two cone types would provide the basis for dichromatic color vision consistent with recent results from behavioral testing of horses (Macuda & Timney, 1999; Macuda & Timney, 2000; Timney & Macuda, 2001). The spectral peak of the M/L cone photopigment measured here, in vivo, is similar to that obtained when the gene was sequenced, cloned, and expressed in vitro (Yokoyama & Radlwimmer, 1999). Of the ungulates that have been studied to date, all have the photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision; however, they differ considerably from one another in the spectral tuning of their cone pigments. These differences may represent adaptations to the different visual requirements of different species.
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Breuer, K., Sutcliffe, M. E. M., Mercer, J. T., Rance, K. A., Beattie, V. E., Sneddon, I. A., et al. (2003). The effect of breed on the development of adverse social behaviours in pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 84(1), 59–74.
Abstract: Tail-biting and other harmful social behaviours are a common problem on pig farms. The aims of the current experiment were (1) to investigate the genetic component of harmful social behaviours such as tail-biting by assessing breed differences, and (2) to further investigate the reliability and predictability of a test, [`]the tail-chew test', previously identified as potentially being capable of predicting a pig's predisposition for tail- and ear-biting. The behaviour of three pig breeds (Large White (LW), Landrace (LR), Duroc (DR)), with 100 pigs per breed, was observed in a [`]tail-chew test', and by observing the performance of harmful social behaviour directed to pen mates in flat deck pens after weaning. The tail-chew test, carried out on two consecutive days pre-weaning, involved observing the behaviour of individual pigs towards two suspended ropes. Pigs were weaned at 28 days and the occurrence of harmful social behaviour was recorded 4 weeks later over 2 consecutive days (1 h per day) using a group [`]period occurrence' scanning method. Breed had a significant effect on rope-directed behaviour in the tail-chew test and on harmful social behaviour. DR pigs interacted with the ropes in the tail-chew test more often (median 23.0 vs 19.0 and 17.5 times in 20 min, P<0.001) and for longer (31.0 vs 20.0 and 23.2 s, P<0.001) than LR and LW pigs, respectively. Although not significantly different from LW, DR pigs tended to direct more total harmful social behaviour towards pen mates than the other breeds. In particular, DR were observed in more total pig-directed biting of pen mates (median 9.0 vs 6.0 and 7.0, P<0.01) than LR and LW, and tended to nose pen mates more often than the other breeds (13.0 vs 11.0 and 10.0, P=0.06). LR pigs bit the ears of pen mates less often than LW and DR (4.0 vs 5.0 and 6.0, P<0.001). Belly-nosing activity was low, with a median of 0 for all breeds, but LR belly-nosed pen mates more often than Durocs (interquartile ranges 0-2.0 vs 0-1.0 and 0-1.0, P<0.01). The behaviour observed in the tail-chew test on day 1 correlated significantly with that observed on day 2 of the test (e.g. frequency of rope-directed behaviour rs=0.380,P<0.01). There were significant but weak correlations between rope-directed behaviour and the performance of some harmful social behaviours. The significant breed differences indicate some genetic contribution to expression of harmful social behaviours. However, the tail-chew test was found to be of limited ability to predict tail- and ear-biting under commercial conditions.
Keywords: Pig; Breed; Harmful social behaviour; Ear-biting; Tail-biting; Tail-chew test
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Koba, Y., & Tanida, H. (2001). How do miniature pigs discriminate between people?: Discrimination between people wearing coveralls of the same colour. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 73(1), 45–58.
Abstract: Seven experiments were conducted on four miniature pigs to determine: (1) whether the pigs can discriminate between people wearing the same coloured clothing; (2) what cues they rely on if they could discriminate. For 2 weeks before the experiments began, the pigs were conditioned in a Y-maze to receive raisins from the rewarder wearing dark blue coveralls. They were then given the opportunity to choose the rewarder or non-rewarder in these experiments. Each session consisted of 20 trials. Successful discrimination was that the pig chose the rewarder at least 15 times in 20 trials (P<0.05: by χ2-test). In Experiment 1, both rewarder and non-rewarder wore dark blue coveralls. By 20 sessions, all pigs successfully identified the rewarder. In Experiment 2: (1) both wore coveralls of the same new colours or (2) one of them wore coveralls of new colours. They significantly preferred the rewarder even though the rewarder and/or non-rewarder wore coveralls of new colours. In Experiment 3, both wore dark blue coveralls but olfactory cues were obscured and auditory cues were not given. The pigs were able to identify the rewarder successfully irrespective of changing auditory and olfactory cues. In Experiment 4, both wore dark blue coveralls but covered part of their face and body in different ways. The correct response rate decreased when a part of the face and the whole body of the rewarder and non-rewarder were covered. In Experiment 5, both wore dark blue coveralls and changed their apparent body size by shifting sitting position. The correct response rate increased as the difference in body size between the experimenters increased. In Experiment 6, the distance between the experimenters and the pig was increased by 30 cm increments. The correct response rate of each pig decreased as the experimenters receded from the pig, but performance varied among the pigs. In Experiment 7, the light intensity of the experimental room was reduced from 550 to 80 lx and then to 20 lx. The correct response rate of each pig decreased with the reduction in light intensity, but all the pigs discriminated the rewarder from the non-rewarder significantly even at 20 lx. In conclusion, the pigs were able to discriminate between people wearing coveralls of the same colour after sufficient reinforcement. These results indicate that pigs are capable of using visual cues to discriminate between people.
Keywords: Pigs; Learning; Recognition; Human-animal relationships
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Palme, R., Fischer, P., Schildorfer, H., & Ismail, M. N. (1996). Excretion of infused 14C-steroid hormones via faeces and urine in domestic livestock. Animal Reproduction Science, 43(1), 43–63.
Abstract: The aim of this comparative study was to gain more information about the excretion of steroid hormones in farm animals. This should help to establish or improve non-invasive steroid monitoring procedures, especially in zoo and wildlife animals. Over a period of 4 h the 14C-steroid hormones (3.7 MBq) progesterone (three females), testosterone (three males), cortisol and oestrone (two males, two females) were infused intravenously in sheep, ponies and pigs. Faeces were collected immediately after defecation. Urine was sampled via a permanent catheter in females and after spontaneous urination in males. A total of 88 +/- 10% (mean +/- SD) of the administered radioactivity was recovered. Considerable interspecies differences were measured both in the amounts of steroid metabolites excreted via faeces or urine and the time course of excretion. Progesterone and oestrone in ewes, and progesterone in mares were excreted mainly in the faeces (over 75%). The primary route of excretion of all other 14C-steroids was via the urine but to a different extent. In general, sheep showed the highest degree of faecal excretion and pigs the least. The highest radioactivity in urine (per mmol creatinine) was observed during the infusion or in one of the next two samples thereafter, whereas in faeces it was measured about 12 h (sheep), 24 h (ponies) or 48 h (pigs) after the end of the infusion. Thereafter the radioactivity declined and reached background levels within 2-3 weeks. In faeces, steroid metabolites were present mainly in an unconjugated form, but in blood and urine as conjugates. Mean retention time of faecal radioactivity suggested that the passage rate of digesta (duodenum to rectum) played an important role in the time course of the excretion of steroids. The information derived from this investigation could improve the precision of sampling as well as the extraction of steroids from the faeces. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that it should be possible to establish methods for measuring faecal androgen and cortisol metabolites for assessing male reproductive endocrinology and stress in animals.
Keywords: Sheep--endocrinology; Pig--endocrinology; Pony; 14C-steroids; Faeces; Urine; Blood
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Wilson, R. T. (2003). Biodiversity of Domestic Livestock in the Republic of Yemen. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 35(1), 27–46.
Abstract: Abstract This paper describes the domestic livestock of the Republic of Yemen and aspires to complement earlier sources listing or partially describing `breeds'. It attempts to cover all species and provide indications of production parameters through a literature review and via field observations made by the author in 1999. Information is provided on livestock numbers and the economic importance of animal production. Most animals are kept in sedentary mixed crop-livestock production systems; transhumant systems have the next greatest number of stock; with nomadic systems being of least and declining importance. Yemen's livestock appear to comprise at least 11 breeds of sheep, 5 breeds of goat, 2 breeds of cattle, 4 breeds of camel, 2 breeds of donkey and 1 breed of horse. There are no data on breeds of poultry but domestic fowl (where clearly considerable diversity exists) and pigeons are kept. There is little formal information on the history and relationships of most breeds. Some appear to be of ancient local origin, whereas others show affinities with those of neighbouring and other countries. None of the identified types is considered endangered, so conservation would be premature. A more formal and detailed genetic characterization, to add to the largely morphological and traditional classification, may, however, reveal such a need.
Keywords: Abstract This paper describes the domestic livestock of the Republic of Yemen and aspires to complement earlier sources listing or partially describing `breeds'. It attempts to cover all species and provide indications of production parameters through a literature review and via field observations made by the author in 1999. Information is provided on livestock numbers and the economic importance of animal production. Most animals are kept in sedentary mixed crop-livestock production systems; transhumant systems have the next greatest number of stock; with nomadic systems being of least and declining importance. Yemen's livestock appear to comprise at least 11 breeds of sheep, 5 breeds of goat, 2 breeds of cattle, 4 breeds of camel, 2 breeds of donkey and 1 breed of horse. There are no data on breeds of poultry but domestic fowl (where clearly considerable diversity exists) and pigeons are kept. There is little formal information on the history and relationships of most breeds. Some appear to be of ancient local origin, whereas others show affinities with those of neighbouring and other countries. None of the identified types is considered endangered, so conservation would be premature. A more formal and detailed genetic characterization, to add to the largely morphological and traditional classification, may, however, reveal such a need.
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