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Author |
Heyes, C.M. |
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Title |
Social learning in animals: categories and mechanisms |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1994 |
Publication |
Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |
Abbreviated Journal |
Biol. Rev. |
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Volume |
69 |
Issue |
2 |
Pages |
207-231 |
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Keywords |
Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Conditioning (Psychology); *Learning; Reinforcement (Psychology); *Social Behavior |
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Abstract |
There has been relatively little research on the psychological mechanisms of social learning. This may be due, in part, to the practice of distinguishing categories of social learning in relation to ill-defined mechanisms (Davis, 1973; Galef, 1988). This practice both makes it difficult to identify empirically examples of different types of social learning, and gives the false impression that the mechanisms responsible for social learning are clearly understood. It has been proposed that social learning phenomena be subsumed within the categorization scheme currently used by investigators of asocial learning. This scheme distinguishes categories of learning according to observable conditions, namely, the type of experience that gives rise to a change in an animal (single stimulus vs. stimulus-stimulus relationship vs. response-reinforcer relationship), and the type of behaviour in which this change is detected (response evocation vs. learnability) (Rescorla, 1988). Specifically, three alignments have been proposed: (i) stimulus enhancement with single stimulus learning, (ii) observational conditioning with stimulus-stimulus learning, or Pavlovian conditioning, and (iii) observational learning with response-reinforcer learning, or instrumental conditioning. If, as the proposed alignments suggest, the conditions of social and asocial learning are the same, there is some reason to believe that the mechanisms underlying the two sets of phenomena are also the same. This is so if one makes the relatively uncontroversial assumption that phenomena which occur under similar conditions tend to be controlled by similar mechanisms. However, the proposed alignments are intended to be a set of hypotheses, rather than conclusions, about the mechanisms of social learning; as a basis for further research in which animal learning theory is applied to social learning. A concerted attempt to apply animal learning theory to social learning, to find out whether the same mechanisms are responsible for social and asocial learning, could lead both to refinements of the general theory, and to a better understanding of the mechanisms of social learning. There are precedents for these positive developments in research applying animal learning theory to food aversion learning (e.g. Domjan, 1983; Rozin & Schull, 1988) and imprinting (e.g. Bolhuis, de Vox & Kruit, 1990; Hollis, ten Cate & Bateson, 1991). Like social learning, these phenomena almost certainly play distinctive roles in the antogeny of adaptive behaviour, and they are customarily regarded as 'special kinds' of learning (Shettleworth, 1993).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS) |
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Department of Psychology, University College London |
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1464-7931 |
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PMID:8054445 |
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708 |
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Author |
Whiten, A. |
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Title |
The second inheritance system of chimpanzees and humans |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Nature |
Abbreviated Journal |
Nature |
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Volume |
437 |
Issue |
7055 |
Pages |
52-55 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Animals, Wild/physiology/psychology; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; *Culture; Female; Humans; Imitative Behavior; Learning/*physiology; Pan troglodytes/*physiology/psychology; *Social Behavior; Technology |
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Abstract |
Half a century of dedicated field research has brought us from ignorance of our closest relatives to the discovery that chimpanzee communities resemble human cultures in possessing suites of local traditions that uniquely identify them. The collaborative effort required to establish this picture parallels the one set up to sequence the chimpanzee genome, and has revealed a complex social inheritance system that complements the genetic picture we are now developing. |
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Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, and Scottish Primate Research Group, School of Psychology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9JP, UK. a.whiten@st-and.ac.uk |
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1476-4687 |
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PMID:16136127 |
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730 |
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Caldwell, C.A.; Whiten, A. |
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Title |
Testing for social learning and imitation in common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus, using an artificial fruit |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2004 |
Publication |
Animal cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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7 |
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2 |
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77-85 |
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Animals; *Association Learning; Callithrix/*psychology; Discrimination Learning; *Feeding Behavior; Female; Food Preferences; Fruit; *Imitative Behavior; Male; *Social Behavior; Social Environment |
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We tested for social learning and imitation in common marmosets using an artificial foraging task and trained conspecific demonstrators. We trained a demonstrator marmoset to open an artificial fruit, providing a full demonstration of the task to be learned. Another marmoset provided a partial demonstration, controlling for stimulus enhancement effects, by eating food from the outside of the apparatus. We thus compared three observer groups, each consisting of four animals: those that received the full demonstration, those that received the partial demonstration, and a control group that saw no demonstration prior to testing. Although none of the observer marmosets succeeded in opening the artificial fruit during the test periods, there were clear effects of demonstration type. Those that saw the full demonstration manipulated the apparatus more overall, whereas those from the control group manipulated it the least of the three groups. Those from the full-demonstration group also contacted the particular parts of the artificial fruit that they had seen touched (localised stimulus enhancement) to a greater extent than the other two groups. There was also an interaction between the number of hand and mouth touches made to the artificial fruit for the full- and partial-demonstration groups. Whether or not these data represent evidence for imitation is discussed. We also propose that the clear differences between the groups suggest that social learning mechanisms provide real benefits to these animals in terms of developing novel food-processing skills analogous to the one presented here. |
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Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution and Scottish Primate Research Group, University of St Andrews, KY16 9JU, St Andrews, Fife, Scotland. C.A.Caldwell@exeter.ac.uk |
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1435-9448 |
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PMID:15069606 |
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refbase @ user @ |
Serial |
735 |
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Author |
Stoinski, T.S.; Wrate, J.L.; Ure, N.; Whiten, A. |
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Title |
Imitative learning by captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in a simulated food-processing task |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2001 |
Publication |
Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983) |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Comp Psychol |
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Volume |
115 |
Issue |
3 |
Pages |
272-281 |
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Keywords |
Animals; Behavior, Animal/physiology; *Discrimination Learning; Feeding Behavior/*physiology; Gorilla gorilla; *Imitative Behavior; Social Behavior |
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Although field studies have suggested the existence of cultural transmission of foraging techniques in primates, identification of transmission mechanisms has remained elusive. To test experimentally for evidence of imitation in the current study, we exposed gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to an artificial fruit foraging task designed by A. Whiten and D. M. Custance (1996). Gorillas (n=6) watched a human model remove a series of 3 defenses around a fruit. Each of the defenses was removed using 1 of 2 alternative techniques. Subsequent video analysis of gorillas' behavior showed a significant tendency to copy the observed technique on 1 of the individual defenses and the direction of removal on another defense. This is the first statistically reliable evidence of imitation in gorillas. Sequence of defense removal was not replicated. The gorillas' responses were most similar to those of chimpanzees. |
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TECHlab, Zoo Atlanta, Georgia 30315, USA. stoinskit@mindspring.com |
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0735-7036 |
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PMID:11594496 |
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no |
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refbase @ user @ |
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738 |
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Author |
Weeks, J.W.; Crowell-Davis, S.L.; Caudle, A.B.; Heusner, G.L. |
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Title |
Aggression and social spacing in light horse (Equus caballus) mares and foals |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
2000 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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68 |
Issue |
4 |
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319-337 |
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Dominance relationships; Horse; Sex differences; Social ontogeny; aggregation; parent-offspring interaction; social behavior |
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Aggression and social spacing were studied in 14 light horse mares and their foals living at pasture. Focal samples were collected on each mare-foal dyad for 6 to 10.5 h from 2 months of foal age until weaning at approximately 4 months of age. Observations on foals continued until approximately 6 months of age for 7.5 to 10.5 h per foal. Every 2 min the identities of all individuals within 5 m were recorded. All occurrences of agonistic behavior, and the participants, were recorded during the focal samples. In addition, during feeding of supplemental grain, all occurrences of agonistic behavior by all subjects were recorded. Significant correlations were found between mare rank and the rank of foals both prior to and after weaning. Before weaning, the rank of the foal was significantly correlated with birth order. No significant correlation between birth order and foal rank was found for the post-weaning hierarchy. An animal's gender had no significant effect on foal rank or the choice of preferred associate. Both prior to and after weaning, foals associated preferentially with the foal of their dam's most preferred associate. In addition, significant positive correlations were found between rank of mares and foals and the rate at which they directed aggression to other herd members. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. |
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Cited By (since 1996): 7; Export Date: 21 April 2007; Source: Scopus |
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788 |
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Author |
Goodwin, D. |
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Title |
The importance of ethology in understanding the behaviour of the horse |
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Journal Article |
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Year |
1999 |
Publication |
Equine Veterinary Journal. Supplement |
Abbreviated Journal |
Equine Vet J Suppl |
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28 |
Pages |
15-19 |
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Keywords |
*Animal Husbandry; Animals; *Behavior, Animal; Bonding, Human-Pet; Evolution; *Horses; Social Behavior |
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Abstract |
Domestication has provided the horse with food, shelter, veterinary care and protection, allowing individuals an increased chance of survival. However, the restriction of movement, limited breeding opportunities and a requirement to expend energy, for the benefit of another species, conflict with the evolutionary processes which shaped the behaviour of its predecessors. The behaviour of the horse is defined by its niche as a social prey species but many of the traits which ensured the survival of its ancestors are difficult to accommodate in the domestic environment. There has been a long association between horses and man and many features of equine behaviour suggest a predisposition to interspecific cooperation. However, the importance of dominance in human understanding of social systems has tended to overemphasize its importance in the human-horse relationship. The evolving horse-human relationship from predation to companionship, has resulted in serial conflicts of interest for equine and human participants. Only by understanding the nature and origin of these conflicts can ethologists encourage equine management practices which minimise deleterious effects on the behaviour of the horse. |
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Anthrozoology Institute, University of Southampton, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton S016 7PX, UK |
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PMID:11314229 |
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refbase @ user @ |
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1920 |
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Author |
McDonnell, S.M.; Freeman, D.A.; Cymbaluk, N.F.; Schott, H.C. 2nd; Hinchcliff, K.; Kyle, B. |
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Title |
Behavior of stabled horses provided continuous or intermittent access to drinking water |
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Journal Article |
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1999 |
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American Journal of Veterinary Research |
Abbreviated Journal |
Am J Vet Res |
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60 |
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11 |
Pages |
1451-1456 |
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Aggression; Animal Husbandry; Animals; Behavior, Animal/*physiology; Drinking Behavior; Feeding Behavior; Female; Horses/*physiology/*psychology; Housing, Animal; Pregnancy; Pregnancy, Animal/physiology/*psychology; Social Behavior; Videotape Recording; *Water Supply |
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OBJECTIVE: To compare quantitative measures and clinical assessments of behavior as an indication of psychologic well-being of stabled horses provided drinking water continuously or via 1 of 3 intermittent delivery systems. ANIMALS: 22 Quarter Horse (QH) or QH-crossbred mares and 17 Belgian or Belgian-crossbred mares (study 1) and 24 QH or QH-crossbred mares and 18 Belgian or Belgian-crossbred mares (study 2). PROCEDURE: Stabled horses were provided water continuously or via 1 of 3 intermittent water delivery systems in 2 study periods during a 2-year period. Continuous 24-hour videotaped samples were used to compare quantitative measures and clinical assessments of behavior among groups provided water by the various water delivery systems. RESULTS: All horses had clinically normal behavior. Significant differences in well being were not detected among groups provided water by the various delivery systems. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Various continuous and intermittent water delivery systems can provide adequately for the psychologic well-being of stabled horses. |
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New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square 19348, USA |
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0002-9645 |
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PMID:10566826 |
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1928 |
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Waran, N.K. |
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Can studies of feral horse behaviour be used for assessing domestic horse welfare? |
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1997 |
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Equine Veterinary Journal |
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Equine Vet J |
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29 |
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4 |
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249-251 |
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Animal Husbandry/methods; *Animal Welfare; Animals; Animals, Domestic; Animals, Wild; *Behavior, Animal; Horses/*psychology; Social Behavior |
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0425-1644 |
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PMID:15338901 |
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1936 |
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Klingel, H. |
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Title |
Social organization of feral horses |
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1982 |
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Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement |
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J Reprod Fertil Suppl |
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32 |
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89-95 |
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Animals; Animals, Wild; Female; Horses/*physiology; Male; Sexual Behavior, Animal; *Social Behavior; Territoriality |
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The basic social unit in feral horses is the family group consisting of one stallion, one to a few unrelated mares and their foals. Surplus stallions associate in bachelor groups. Stallions are instrumental in bringing mares together in a unit which then persists even without a stallion. The similarity of social organization in populations living in a variety of different habitats indicates that feral horses have reverted to the habits of their wild ancestors, and that domestication has had no influence on this basic behavioural feature. |
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0449-3087 |
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PMID:6962906 |
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1958 |
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Lynch, J.J.; Fregin, G.F.; Mackie, J.B.; Monroe, R.R.J. |
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Heart rate changes in the horse to human contact |
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1974 |
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Psychophysiology |
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Psychophysiology |
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11 |
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472-478 |
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Animals; Behavior, Animal; Electrocardiography/veterinary; *Heart Rate; Horses/*physiology; Humans; *Social Behavior; *Touch |
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0048-5772 |
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PMID:4852234 |
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1965 |
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