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Bryson, J.; Leong, J. |
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Title |
Primate errors in transitive inference: a two-tier learning model |
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Journal Article |
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2007 |
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Animal Cognition |
Abbreviated Journal |
Anim. Cogn. |
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10 |
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1 |
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1-15 |
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Transitive inference, choice or performance – Task learning – Hippocampal learning – Modelling |
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Abstract Transitive performance (TP) is a learning-based behaviour exhibited by a wide range of species, where if a subject has been taught to prefer A when presented with the pair AB but to prefer B when presented with the pair BC, then the subject will also prefer A when presented with the novel pair AC. Most explanations of TP assume that subjects recognize and learn an underlying sequence from observing the training pairs. However, data from squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and young children contradict this, showing that when three different items (a triad) are drawn from the sequence, subjects`` performance degrades systematically (McGonigle and Chalmers, Nature 267:694-696, 1977; Chalmers and McGonigle, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 37:355-377, 1984; Harris and McGonigle, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 47B:319-348, 1994). We present here the two-tier model, the first learning model of TP which accounts for this systematic performance degradation. Our model assumes primate TP is based on a general-purpose task learning system rather than a special-purpose sequence-learning system. It supports the hypothesis of Heckers et al. (Hippocampus 14:153-162, 2004) that TP is an expression of two separate general learning elements: one for associating actions and contexts, another for prioritising associations when more than one context is present. The two-tier model also provides explanations for why phased training is important for helping subjects learn the initial training pairs and why some subjects fail to do so. It also supports the Harris and McGonigle (The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 47B:319-348, 1994) explanation of why, once the training pairs have been acquired, subjects perform transitive choice automatically on two-item diads, but not when exposed to triads from the same sequence. |
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Admin @ knut @ |
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4221 |
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Billat, L.V. |
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Interval Training for Performance: A Scientific and Empirical Practice: Special Recommendations for Middle- and Long-Distance Running. Part I: Aerobic Interval Training |
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2001 |
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Sports Medicine |
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Sports Med |
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31 |
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1 |
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13-31 |
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Aerobic exercise; Exercise performance; Training |
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This article traces the history of scientific and empirical interval training. Scientific research has shed some light on the choice of intensity, work duration and rest periods in so-called 'interval training'. Interval training involves repeated short to long bouts of rather high intensity exercise (equal or superior to maximal lactate steady-state velocity) interspersed with recovery periods (light exercise or rest). Interval training was first described by Reindell and Roskamm and was popularised in the 1950s by the Olympic champion, Emil Zatopek. Since then middle- and long- distance runners have used this technique to train at velocities close to their own specific competition velocity. In fact, trainers have used specific velocities from 800 to 5000m to calibrate interval training without taking into account physiological markers. However, outside of the competition season it seems better to refer to the velocities associated with particular physiological responses in the range from maximal lactate steady state to the absolute maximal velocity. The range of velocities used in a race must be taken into consideration, since even world records are not run at a constant pace. Copyright 2001 Adis International |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ 00007256-200131010-00002 |
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5002 |
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Górecka-Bruzda, A.; Chruszczewski, M.H.; Jezierski, T.; Murphy, J. |
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Behaviour-related traits of Polish sport horse stallions participating in 100-day performance tests |
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Livestock Science |
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Livest Sci |
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In Press, Corrected Proof |
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Horse; 100-day performance tests; Behaviour; Temperament; Factor Analysis |
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Sport horse studbooks frequently use performance tests to identify, evaluate and approve stallions for future breeding programmes. The aim of this study was to analyse behaviour-related traits of Polish Warmblood stallions participating in studbook 100-day performance tests. Both relatedness and differences of traits and their contribution to overall variability were analysed. Three-year-old stallions (n = 374) participated in 100-day performance test programmes at two Polish training stations from 2004 to 2008. Traits including character, temperament and trainability (trainer rated), free-jumping, jumping under the rider, walk, trot and canter (independently rated by both trainer and the selection jury) and jumping ability, dressage-ability and rideability (rated by the independent test rider) were subjected to Factor Analysis (FA) with varimax rotation. The FA produced three factors [Cooperation (Cp), Jumping Potential (JP) and Dressage Potential (DP)] with eigenvalues > 1, which accounted for 64.6% of the total variance of the traits examined. After rotation, the factors represented Cp: 23.2.0%, JP: 21.5% and DP: 19.8% of variance respectively. The traits of character, temperament, trainability, jumping under the rider, rideability, dressage and jumping abilities had high loadings on the second factor (Cp) and thereafter, the assessment of all behaviour-related traits contributed to the general evaluation with approximately one-fifth of total variability. The findings may indicate that successful sport careers for any horse may be much more closely associated with willingness to cooperate with the rider and riding and handling behaviour, than to the horse's actual physical performance potential. It would appear that only so-called sport-suitable performance of the horse is being selected for in performance tests (during jumping and dressage suitability testing). This approach may be short-sighted and inadequate with serious implications for horse under-performance in leisure activities notwithstanding general horse welfare within the disciplines of equitation. |
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1871-1413 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5281 |
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König von Borstel, U.; Pasing, S.; Gauly, M. |
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Towards a more objective assessment of equine personality using behavioural and physiological observations from performance test training |
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Journal Article |
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2011 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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135 |
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4 |
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277-285 |
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Horse; Personality; Behaviour; Heart rate variability; Riding; Performance test |
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Current definitions of horse personality traits are rather vague, lacking clear, universally accepted guidelines for evaluation in performance tests. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to screen behavioural and physiological measurements taken during riding for potential links with scores the same horses received in the official stallion performance test for rideability and personality traits. Behaviour, heart rate (HR) and HR variability from thirty-six stallions participating in a performance test were recorded repeatedly during their performance test training. Using the coefficient of determination, regression analysis revealed that about 1/3 of variation (ranging between r = 0.26 (“constitution” (i.e. fitness, health)) and r = 0.46 (rideability)) in the personality trait scores could be explained by selecting the three most influential behaviour patterns per trait. These behaviour patterns included stumbling (with all traits except character), head-tossing (temperament, rideability), tail-swishing (willingness to work), involuntary change in gait (character) and the rider's use of her/his hands (constitution, rideability), voice (temperament) or whip (constitution). Subsequent mixed model analysis revealed a significant (P < 0.05) influence of the behaviour pattern “horse-induced change in gait” on character (-0.98 ± 0.31 scores per additional occurrence of change in gaits), of head-tossing (-0.25 ± 0.08 scores) and rider's use of voice (-0.51 ± 0.25; P = 0.0594) on temperament, and of stumbling on each of the following: willingness to work (-2.5 ± 1.2), constitution (-2.5 ± 1.2 scores; P = 0.0516) and rideability scores (-3.3 ± 1.4). In addition, constitution scores tended (P = 0.0889) to increase with higher low frequency/high frequency heart rate variation ratios (LF/HF), indicating a shift towards sympathetic dominance and thus a higher stress load in horses with higher scores for constitution. Rideability scores from the training phase were also significantly influenced by head-tossing (-0.5 ± 0.1), and in addition rideability scores from the final test were influenced by the training rider, ranging between average estimated rideability scores of 6.8 ± 0.4 for one training rider and 8.36 ± 0.3 scores for another training rider. Horses ridden with their nose-line predominantly behind the vertical received higher scores for rideability (8.3 ± 0.3) than horses ridden with their nose-line at the vertical (7.7 ± 0.2). These findings indicate that either judges perceive horses to have a better rideability when they readily offer a more extreme poll flexion, or that riders make use of horses’ better rideability by imposing a more extreme poll flexion. Several of the above described associations, but also of the non-existing links (e.g. no association between shying or heart rate and temperament) between behaviour patterns and scores for personality traits are rather surprising, warranting further investigation regarding the underlying causes of these relationships. Some of these behaviour patterns should be considered when redesigning the current guidelines for evaluation of personality traits during breeding horse performance tests, ultimately leading to improved genetic selection for equine personality traits. However, ethical implication of defining aversive behaviour such as head-tossing as an indicator of, for example, poor temperament, should not be neglected when devising new guidelines: such aversive behaviour may in fact be an indication of inadequate training techniques rather than poor horse personality. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5489 |
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König v. Borstel, U.; Pirsich, W.; Gauly, M.; Bruns, E. |
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Repeatability and reliability of scores from ridden temperament tests conducted during performance tests |
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Journal Article |
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2012 |
Publication |
Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
Abbreviated Journal |
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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139 |
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3–4 |
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251-263 |
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Keywords |
Horse; Personality; Temperament test; Riding; Repeatability; Performance test |
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Current scores for equine personality traits assessed during performance tests are characterised by high means and inadequate variation, hampering genetic selection for these traits. A number of temperament and related behaviour tests have been developed in order to make assessment of equine personality more objective. However, rarely these tests have been validated for their use as a selection tool. Thus, as a first step the aim of the present study was to integrate a temperament tests into horse performance tests, in order to assess variability and repeatability of horses’ reactivity under the rider and the reliability of the judges’ assessment thereof. The temperament test was comprised of three novel stimuli, including a visual stimulus (BALL), a visual and tactile stimulus (GATE), and a visual and auditory stimulus (CANS). A total of 224 mares and stallions were subjected to the test during their participation in station performance tests for riding horses, and 133 of these horses were subjected to the test a second time either 2–3 weeks or 18 weeks after the first test. Horses were ridden in the test by professional riders, and their reactions to the stimuli were evaluated each by two judges and the rider using scores on a scale from 1 (task not concluded) to 10 (completely calm but attentive horse). Mean scores (±SD) ranged between 6.6 ± 2.4 (GATE) and 7.8 ± 2.1 (BALL), demonstrating lower means and considerably higher standard deviations than the same horses’ scores from present evaluation of the trait labelled temperament (8.1 ± 0.9) or related personality traits (e.g. character: 8.3 ± 0.8). Using variance components from mixed model analysis, inter-observer agreement between the two judges was for the individual stimuli very high (0.95 (BALL), 0.96 (GATE), 0.89 (CANS)), and there was likewise high agreement between the judges’ and the riders’ combined scores (0.93). Repeatabilities of horses’ scores were 0.72 (BALL), 0.75 (GATE), and 0.69 (CANS). Correlations to traits from the present evaluation of personality were low or non-existent, indicating that these traits are not a reflection of anxiety or fear reactivity as assessed by novel object tests. Horses’ improvement in judges’ combined scores from first to second test was not (P > 0.1) influenced by differences in time between tests, but differed between breed-types and individual riders. Also, not surprisingly, the higher horses’ scores in the first test were, the lower their improvement in the second test was (-0.45 ± 0.06 per additional score in the first test). Temperament tests using novel stimuli presented to horses under a rider may be a practical and valid tool for improving the current assessment of equine personality traits during performance tests. Considering a combination of absolute scores and horses’ improvement in scores of repeated tests, rather than measuring only absolute scores yields relevant information about horses’ personality, and at the same time it may prevent owners from deliberately training their horses for low reactions to the test-stimuli. |
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0168-1591 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5642 |
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Graf, P.; König von Borstel, U.; Gauly, M. |
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Practical considerations regarding the implementation of a temperament test into horse performance tests: Results of a large-scale test run |
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2014 |
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Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research |
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9 |
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6 |
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329-340 |
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novel object test; temperament; personality; horse; performance traits; performance tests |
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Abstract Considering the ever-growing demand of various breeding organizations for an objective, inexpensive, reliable, and easily conducted assessment of the behavior of horses, the aim of our study was to implement a novel-object test and a startling test into any kind of breeding performance testing to assess horses' temperament. Additionally, the influence of testing areas (familiar or unfamiliar), riders, and horse factors such as levels of training, breed, and age were of interest. Furthermore, recommendations for the practical implementation concerning the parameters should be given. Therefore, 1,028 horses over a period of 3 years participated in a temperament test consisting of 5 different stimuli. The horses were either ridden (61.8 %) or led by hand (38.2 %) by an unfamiliar professional rider (N = 43) or a familiar rider (N = 20). Live behavioral observations were taken by a trained observer. Overall, horses' scores for reactivity in the present temperament test were distributed over the whole scale, with lower means and higher standard deviations (6.7 ± 2.2-7.6 ± 2.1) than corresponding scores from the conventional personality evaluation in performance tests (7.7 ± 0.8-8.2 ± 0.5; P < 0.01). High correlations (r = 0.3-0.9; P < 0.001) between the scores for reactivity and the other behavioral parameters (emotional expression, activity, time to calm down, rider's aids) show a large influence of these parameters in assessing the horses' temperament. Factors like breed type, sex, and age had significant influences (P < 0.001) on different scores of the temperament test. In most cases, the rider or handler had no influence on the different scores assessed during the temperament test. The training level and the testing modus never had a significant influence on different scores. Only the testing station or location had a small influence on the scores for the stimulus “bridge” in some horses. Based on the results, it could be concluded that an implementation of a temperament tests into performance testing is possible during various types of testing procedure. Especially the assessment of reactivity, emotional expression, interest in the stimulus and rider's aids during and after passing the stimulus, as well as the time to calm down are important parameters for analyzing the horses' personality. |
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1558-7878 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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5867 |
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Ahrendt, L.P.; Labouriau, R.; Malmkvist, J.; Nicol, C.J.; Christensen, J.W. |
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Development of a standard test to assess negative reinforcement learning in horses |
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Journal Article |
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2015 |
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Applied Animal Behaviour Science |
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Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. |
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169 |
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38-42 |
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Algometry; Horse behaviour; Learning performance; Operant conditioning; Pressure-release; Horse training |
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Most horses are trained by negative reinforcement. Currently, however, no standardised test for evaluating horses' negative reinforcement learning ability is available. The aim of this study was to develop an objective test to investigate negative reinforcement learning in horses. Twenty-four Icelandic horses (3 years old) were included in this study. The horses were tested in a pressure-release task on three separate days with 10, 7 and 5 trials on each side, respectively. Each trial consisted of pressure being applied on the hindquarter with an algometer. The force of the pressure was increased until the horse moved laterally away from the point of pressure. There was a significant decrease in required force over trials on the first test day (P<0.001), but not the second and third day. The intercepts on days 2 and 3 differed significantly from day 1 (P<0.001), but not each other. Significantly stronger force was required on the right side compared to the left (P<0.001), but there was no difference between first and second side tested (P=0.56). Individual performance was evaluated by median-force and the change in force over trials on the first test day. These two measures may explain different characteristics of negative reinforcement learning. In conclusion, this study presents a novel, standardised test for evaluating negative reinforcement learning ability in horses. |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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6650 |
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Evans, T.A.; Westergaard, G.C. |
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Discrimination of functionally appropriate and inappropriate throwing tools by captive tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) |
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2004 |
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Animal Cognition |
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Anim. Cogn. |
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7 |
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4 |
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255-262 |
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Animals; Appetitive Behavior; Cebus/*psychology; Choice Behavior; *Concept Formation; *Discrimination Learning; Female; Male; *Problem Solving; *Psychomotor Performance; Recognition (Psychology) |
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A tool-throwing task was used to test whether capuchin monkeys understand the difference between functionally appropriate and functionally inappropriate tools. A group of monkeys was trained to obtain a sticky treat from a container outside their enclosure using a projectile attached to one end of an anchored line. Subsequently, these monkeys were given choice tests between functional and nonfunctional versions of tools used in training. A different feature of the tool was varied between alternatives in each choice test. The monkeys chose to use functional tools significantly more often than nonfunctional tools in early exposures to each choice test. A second experiment tested whether these subjects, as well as a second group of minimally trained participants, could distinguish between functional and nonfunctional tools that appeared different from those used in training. A new set of design features was varied between tools in these choice tests. All participants continued to choose functional tools significantly more often than nonfunctional tools, regardless of their tool-throwing experience or the novel appearance of the tools. These results suggest that capuchin monkeys, like chimpanzees studied in similar experiments, are sensitive to a variety of functionally relevant tool features. |
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Alpha Genesis Inc., 95 Castle Hall Road, P.O. Box 557, Yemassee, SC 29945, USA. teprimate@islc.net |
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1435-9448 |
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PMID:15138849 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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2523 |
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Lagarde, J.; Kelso, J.A.S.; Peham, C.; Licka, T. |
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Coordination dynamics of the horse-rider system |
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2005 |
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Journal of Motor Behavior |
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J Mot Behav |
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37 |
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6 |
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418-424 |
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Animals; Biomechanics; *Horses; Humans; Professional Competence; Psychomotor Performance/*physiology; *Sports; Time Factors |
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The authors studied the interaction between rider and horse by measuring their ensemble motions in a trot sequence, comparing 1 expert and 1 novice rider. Whereas the novice's movements displayed transient departures from phase synchrony, the expert's motions were continuously phase-matched with those of the horse. The tight ensemble synchrony between the expert and the horse was accompanied by an increase in the temporal regularity of the oscillations of the trunk of the horse. Observed differences between expert and novice riders indicated that phase synchronization is by no means perfect but requires extended practice. Points of contact between horse and rider may haptically convey effective communication between them. |
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Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431-771, USA. lagarde@ccs.fau.edu |
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0022-2895 |
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PMID:16280312 |
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Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
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4034 |
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Young, L.E.; Rogers, K.; Wood, J.L.N. |
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Title |
Left ventricular size and systolic function in Thoroughbred racehorses and their relationships to race performance |
Type |
Journal Article |
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Year |
2005 |
Publication |
Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985) |
Abbreviated Journal |
J Appl Physiol |
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Volume |
99 |
Issue |
4 |
Pages |
1278-1285 |
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Keywords |
*Adaptation, Physiological; Aging/physiology; Animal Husbandry; Animals; *Echocardiography; Female; Heart/*physiology; Heart Ventricles; Horses/*physiology; Male; *Physical Conditioning, Animal; Running/*physiology; Stroke Volume; Systole; Task Performance and Analysis |
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Abstract |
Cardiac morphology in human athletes is known to differ, depending on the sports-specific endurance component of their events, whereas anecdotes abound about superlative athletes with large hearts. As the heart determines stroke volume and maximum O(2) uptake in mammals, we undertook a study to test the hypothesis that the morphology of the equine heart would differ between trained horses, depending on race type, and that left ventricular size would be greatest in elite performers. Echocardiography was performed in 482 race-fit Thoroughbreds engaged in either flat (1,000-2,500 m) or jump racing (3,200-6,400 m). Body weight and sex-adjusted measures of left ventricular size were largest in horses engaged in jump racing over fixed fences, compared with horses running shorter distances on the flat (range 8-16%). The observed differences in cardiac morphologies suggest that subtle differences in training and competition result in cardiac adaptations that are appropriate to the endurance component of the horses' event. Derived left ventricular mass was strongly associated with published rating (quality) in horses racing over longer distances in jump races (P < or = 0.001), but less so for horses in flat races. Rather, left ventricular ejection fraction and left ventricular mass combined were positively associated with race rating in older flat racehorses running over sprint (<1,408 m) and longer distances (>1,408 m), explaining 25-35% of overall variation in performance, as well as being closely associated with performance in longer races over jumps (23%). These data provide the first direct evidence that cardiac size influences athletic performance in a group of mammalian running athletes. |
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Address |
Centre for Equine Studies, Animal Health Trust, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK. lesley.young@aht.org.uk |
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Place of Publication |
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Language |
English |
Summary Language |
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Original Title |
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Series Editor |
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Series Volume |
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Edition |
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ISSN |
8750-7587 |
ISBN |
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Notes |
PMID:15920096 |
Approved |
no |
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Call Number |
Equine Behaviour @ team @ |
Serial |
3768 |
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