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Young, T., Creighton, E., Smith, T., & Hosie, C. (2012). A novel scale of behavioural indicators of stress for use with domestic horses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 140(1–2), 33–43.
Abstract: Behaviour scores (BS) offer non-invasive, objective and easy to use ways of assessing welfare in animals. Their development has, however, largely focused on behavioural reactions to stressful events (often induced), and little use of physiological measures has been made to underpin and validate the behavioural measures. This study aimed to develop a physiologically validated scale of behavioural indicators of stress for the purpose of welfare assessment in stabled domestic horses. To achieve this, behavioural and physiological data were collected from 32 horses that underwent routine husbandry procedures. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the behavioural and physiological data revealed three meaningful components that were used as the basis of the scale. Analysis of video clips of the horses’ responses to the husbandry procedures was undertaken by a panel of equestrian industry professionals using a free choice profiling (FCP) methodology. These results were added to the scale along with key definitions from relevant literature. Salivary cortisol levels were significantly correlated with the BS confirming the scale was meaningful and reflected physiological stress. The scale offers an easy to use ‘tool’ for rapid, reliable non-invasive welfare assessment in horses, and reduces the need for potentially invasive physiological measures.
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McGreevy, P. (2012). Equine Behavior A Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists.
Abstract: Chapter 1 – Introduction, Pages 1-36
Chapter 2 – Perception, Pages 37-54
Chapter 3 – Behavior and the brain, Pages 55-84, Caroline Hahn
Chapter 4 – Learning, Pages 85-118
Chapter 5 – Social behavior, Pages 119-150
Chapter 6 – Communication, Pages 151-163
Chapter 7 – Locomotory behavior, Pages 165-187
Chapter 8 – Ingestive behavior, Pages 189-215
Chapter 9 – Eliminative behavior, Pages 217-221
Chapter 10 – Body care, Pages 223-243
Chapter 11 – Behavior of the stallion, Pages 245-264
Chapter 12 – Behavior of the mare, Pages 265-290
Chapter 13 – Training, Pages 291-311, Andrew McLean, Paul McGreevy
Chapter 14 – Handling and transport, Pages 313-329
Chapter 15 – Miscellaneous unwelcome behaviors, their causes and resolution, Pages 331-345
Further reading, Page 347
Glossary, Pages 351-356
Index, Pages 357-369
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Conradt, L. (2012). Models in animal collective decision-making: information uncertainty and conflicting preferences. Interface Focus, 2(2), 226–240.
Abstract: Collective decision-making plays a central part in the lives of many social animals. Two important factors that influence collective decision-making are information uncertainty and conflicting preferences. Here, I bring together, and briefly review, basic models relating to animal collective decision-making in situations with information uncertainty and in situations with conflicting preferences between group members. The intention is to give an overview about the different types of modelling approaches that have been employed and the questions that they address and raise. Despite the use of a wide range of different modelling techniques, results show a coherent picture, as follows. Relatively simple cognitive mechanisms can lead to effective information pooling. Groups often face a trade-off between decision accuracy and speed, but appropriate fine-tuning of behavioural parameters could achieve high accuracy while maintaining reasonable speed. The right balance of interdependence and independence between animals is crucial for maintaining group cohesion and achieving high decision accuracy. In conflict situations, a high degree of decision-sharing between individuals is predicted, as well as transient leadership and leadership according to needs and physiological status. Animals often face crucial trade-offs between maintaining group cohesion and influencing the decision outcome in their own favour. Despite the great progress that has been made, there remains one big gap in our knowledge: how do animals make collective decisions in situations when information uncertainty and conflict of interest operate simultaneously?
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Gabor, V., & Gerken, M. (2012). Cognitive testing in Shetland ponies (Equus caballus) using a computer based learning device. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Complex housing environments such as group housing with automatic feeding or the close contact to humans in sports make high demands on the learning ability of the horse. These learning processes include not only habituation, sensitization and simpler forms of operant conditioning, but also stimulus generalization and possibly some type of concept learning. Studies concerning cognitive abilities in the horse increased in the last decades, but for optimizing housing conditions and horse training, deeper insight into the learning behaviour of this species is necessary. In the present study we used the advantages of a computer based learning device to train 7 Shetland ponies to solve a matching to sample task. With this more complex type of a discrimination task, animals are trained to recognize two out of three presented stimuli as identical. In a first step animals learned to operate the learning device and in further learning steps to recognize and assign geometric symbols (dot, cross, square, and triangle) presented on a LCD screen that were ‘equal’. Four of the 7 ponies could solve the given task by performing over 80% correct responses in two consecutive sessions (p < 0.001). In the subsequent transfer test with new symbols, we found that the ponies were able to transfer the learned rule. In further experiments it should be clarified whether the good learning performance of the ponies in the present study is indeed based on their capability to form an abstract concept of sameness. The present results indicate that ponies possibly posses higher cognitive abilities than so far known.
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Berger, A., & Wolfram, M. (2012). How to come together best? – Studies on integration processes of Przewalski horses into new groups (Equus ferus przewalskii). In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Conservation of endangered species in zoos and other protected areas has saved several species from extinction. The Przewalski horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) is one of that species and, being an attractive large ungulate, it is a “flagship species” for conservation projects. Reintroduction into its former habitat is accompanied by many difficulties and is a great challenge. Semireserves have been defined as enclosures large enough to maintain groups of Przewalski horses throughout all seasons of the year without any supplemental provisioning. The animals are kept isolated from external human influences as far as possible, except for necessary interventions such as veterinary care. Hence, the purpose is not limited to preparing animals for survival under natural conditions, but is equally related to the need to gain experience in establishment of free-ranging populations. Naturally, horses live in groups in which all individuals are long-term acquainted with each other and a stable hierarchical system is established. In conservation management an integration of horses into strange groups is often need but at the same time implies social fights, stress and risks for the animals. We investigated the integration process of 4 Przewalski horses from Zoo Leipzig into the herd of 5 Przewalski horses in the semireserve Liebenthal (Brandenburg, Germany). Before transportation the social structure was determined in both the herd in Zoo Leipzig and in Liebenthal. After transportation the social hierarchy and the individual dominance indices were determined by daily observation. Continuous records of activity and feeding were taken from several individuals using the ETHOSYS-storage telemetry system. The automatically recorded behaviours were analysed for daily and ultradian rhythms and used for stress detection by calculating a value (DFC) representative for regularity and stability of rhythmic structures. In zoo conditions, the behaviour was very regular and the daily pattern nearly identical from day to day as expressed by DFC´s near of 100%. After transportation, the behaviour became much less regular, DFC´s dropped significantly, recovered slowly and stabilised on values typically for semireserve conditions. Social bindings and dominances of the former two herds were mainly retained. As an important result, long lasting and stepwise transition from zoo to natural habitats with special training using new observing techniques can be strongly recommended.
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König v. Borstel, U., Pirsich, W., Gauly, M., & Bruns, E. (2012). Repeatability and reliability of scores from ridden temperament tests conducted during performance tests. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 139(3–4), 251–263.
Abstract: Current scores for equine personality traits assessed during performance tests are characterised by high means and inadequate variation, hampering genetic selection for these traits. A number of temperament and related behaviour tests have been developed in order to make assessment of equine personality more objective. However, rarely these tests have been validated for their use as a selection tool. Thus, as a first step the aim of the present study was to integrate a temperament tests into horse performance tests, in order to assess variability and repeatability of horses’ reactivity under the rider and the reliability of the judges’ assessment thereof. The temperament test was comprised of three novel stimuli, including a visual stimulus (BALL), a visual and tactile stimulus (GATE), and a visual and auditory stimulus (CANS). A total of 224 mares and stallions were subjected to the test during their participation in station performance tests for riding horses, and 133 of these horses were subjected to the test a second time either 2–3 weeks or 18 weeks after the first test. Horses were ridden in the test by professional riders, and their reactions to the stimuli were evaluated each by two judges and the rider using scores on a scale from 1 (task not concluded) to 10 (completely calm but attentive horse). Mean scores (±SD) ranged between 6.6 ± 2.4 (GATE) and 7.8 ± 2.1 (BALL), demonstrating lower means and considerably higher standard deviations than the same horses’ scores from present evaluation of the trait labelled temperament (8.1 ± 0.9) or related personality traits (e.g. character: 8.3 ± 0.8). Using variance components from mixed model analysis, inter-observer agreement between the two judges was for the individual stimuli very high (0.95 (BALL), 0.96 (GATE), 0.89 (CANS)), and there was likewise high agreement between the judges’ and the riders’ combined scores (0.93). Repeatabilities of horses’ scores were 0.72 (BALL), 0.75 (GATE), and 0.69 (CANS). Correlations to traits from the present evaluation of personality were low or non-existent, indicating that these traits are not a reflection of anxiety or fear reactivity as assessed by novel object tests. Horses’ improvement in judges’ combined scores from first to second test was not (P > 0.1) influenced by differences in time between tests, but differed between breed-types and individual riders. Also, not surprisingly, the higher horses’ scores in the first test were, the lower their improvement in the second test was (-0.45 ± 0.06 per additional score in the first test). Temperament tests using novel stimuli presented to horses under a rider may be a practical and valid tool for improving the current assessment of equine personality traits during performance tests. Considering a combination of absolute scores and horses’ improvement in scores of repeated tests, rather than measuring only absolute scores yields relevant information about horses’ personality, and at the same time it may prevent owners from deliberately training their horses for low reactions to the test-stimuli.
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Pick, D., & Krueger, K. (2012). Heuristics and complex decisions in man and horses. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Darwin’s claim of differences in mental abilities between man and other animals is a matter of degree rather than of kind and appears to apply nicely to a comparison of choice behaviour in humans and equine. Humans and horses make two kinds of decisions, fast reflexive decisions based on heuristics, and slower more considered decisions that require more complex cognitive processing. Heuristic use is adaptive in that decisions based on them are most often useful in helping an organism to survive while requiring little time and cognitive effort. There is considerable evidence that there is an innate basis to many heuristics in humans as well as horses. A case will be made that the investigation of heuristics specific to horses will lead to an understanding of equine behaviour that has not been possible using traditional learning theories alone. Traditional learning theories are restricted in explaining behaviour to appeals to reinforcement regimes or to the formation of associations between novel stimuli and stimuli that cause innate reflexes, but they are of no use when behaviour is controlled by stimuli that have never been reinforced or been systematically paired with other stimuli that cause reflexive responses. For example, a horse in a two-choice discrimination task may choose a familiar stimulus which has never been reinforced over a new stimulus added to the discrimination task, simply due to the use of an heuristic that usually works -- when in doubt, choose a more familiar object over an unfamiliar one. Conflict resolution strategies provide another good example of heuristic vs. slow decision making. In both humans and horses, conflict resolution strategies are used within, but not typically between social groups. Such groups can be defined as community of interest. Depending on the resource that has to be defended, groups may well be small identities, such as human families or horse harems, or large aggregations such as herds in horses, or religious groups or nations in humans. Fast and simple resolution is possible with stable social identities in simple environments, but more complicated and time consuming deliberative processes are required to resolve conflict over long-term resource acquisition, for decisions in complex conflicts situations and complex social settings.
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Stucke, D., & Lebelt, D. (2012). “Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) – Erforschung von Schmerzindikatoren am Pferd”. In K. Krueger (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2. International Equine Science Meeting (Vol. in press). Wald: Xenophon Publishing.
Abstract: Das EU-Projekt AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) hat zum Ziel, ein weltweites Netzwerk zum Thema Tierschutz und Wohlbefinden von Tieren zu erstellen, durch welches Forschungsergebnisse und neue Erkenntnisse ausgetauscht werden können. Diese Informationen sollen auch dem Gesetzgeber zur Verfügung gestellt werden, um neue Gesetze auf wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen beschließen zu können. Des Weiteren soll diese Plattform zu Trainingszwecken genutzt werden, damit Personen, die im Bereich Tierschutz arbeiten, sich fortbilden können.
In vier Arbeitsgruppen wird am Tier zum Thema Wohlbefinden und Schmerz geforscht. In der ersten Arbeitsgruppe werden Beurteilungsprotokolle für Ziegen, Schafe, Pferde, Esel und Puten erarbeitet, um Wohlbefinden und Schmerz objektiv bestimmen zu können. Dabei geht es sowohl um die Erfassung individueller Parameter, als auch um haltungsbedingte Parameter wie Tierdichte, Gruppengröße oder Mensch-Tier-Interaktion. Das Ziel dieser Protokolle ist die einfache Anwendbarkeit auf große Tierbestände.
Die zweite Arbeitsgruppe erforscht die Beziehung zwischen Wohlbefinden und Krankheit bzw. Schmerz. Der Einfluss von akuten oder chronischen Schmerzen kann das Wohlbefinden erheblich beeinträchtigen. Anhand des Krankheitsbildes der akuten und chronischen Hufrehe sowie durch den chirurgischen Eingriff einer Kastration an gesunden Pferden sollen Schmerzindikatoren am Pferd erforscht werden. Die akute Hufrehe dient als Modell für sehr starke Schmerzen. Die Schmerz-assoziierten physiologischen Parameter Herzfrequenzvariabilität und Zytokinreaktion im Blut werden bestimmt. Mit einem Schmerzbeurteilungsbogen werden außerdem ethologische Parameter wie z. B. Körperhaltung, Kopfbewegungen, Lahmheitsgrad, abnormale Gewichtsverlagerungen, Mensch-Pferd-Interaktionsverhalten und weitere physiologischen Parameter wie Atemfrequenz, Herzfrequenz, Darmgeräusch und Körpertemperatur erhoben. Durch das Krankheitsbild der chronischen Hufrehe sollen die ermittelten Schmerz-assoziierten Parameter auf ihre Aussagefähigkeit auch für weniger starke Schmerzen überprüft werden. In der Kastrationsstudie werden Basiswerte ohne Schmerzen vor dem chirurgischen Eingriff erhoben und mit den Werten nach der Kastration verglichen. Neben den oben genannten Parametern werden zusätzlich Cortisolmetaboliten im Kot bestimmt und es werden Videoaufzeichnungen von der Mimik des Pferdes gemacht und ausgewertet. Außerdem soll der Einsatz von Schmerzmitteln vor und nach der Kastration und deren Einfluss auf das Befinden des Pferdes nach der Operation erforscht werden. Das Forschungsziel der zweiten Arbeitsgruppe ist die Bestimmung von geeigneten Messparametern, durch die Schmerz objektiv beurteilt werden kann.
Die dritte Arbeitsgruppe beschäftigt sich mit dem Einfluss von pränatal erlebtem Stress auf die Individualentwicklung des Fohlens. Veränderungen in der Herdenstruktur, soziale Isolation oder abruptes Absetzen des letzten Fohlens während sensibler Trächtigkeitsphasen beeinflussen die tragende Stute und den Foetus. Nach der Geburt wird das Verhalten der Mutterstute und die Entwicklung des neugeborenen Fohlens beobachtet.
In der vierten Arbeitsgruppe schließlich wird das wissenschaftliche Netzwerk zusammengesetzt. Neben wissenschaftlichen Forschungsergebnissen und Publikationen werden auch Lernmaterialien („learning objects“) erarbeitet und zur Verfügung gestellt. „Learning objects“ sind digitale Lernmaterialien, in denen spielerisch Stück für Stück der Lerninhalt interaktiv erarbeitet werden kann.
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Wickert, M. (2012). Die Bedeutung des Leerkauens bei Pferden aus Sicht der Physiologie und der Ethologie. Doctoral thesis, , .
Abstract: Der Umgang mit Pferden erfreut sich immer größerer Beliebtheit. Aufgrund des Verhaltens können Rückschlüsse auf die Befindlichkeiten der Tiere gezogen werden
(TSCHANZ et al. 1997a). Je mehr wir über das Verhalten der Tiere wissen, desto besser können wir in der Haltung, Ausbildung und Nutzung der Pferde dazu beitragen, die Lebensbedingungen zu verbessern und den Ansprüchen der Pferde gerechter zu werden.
Bei der Ausbildung von Pferden kommen u.a. aus Amerika neue Einflüsse auf Ausbildungsmethoden zu uns. Es wird dabei immer wieder ein „Kauen“ der Pferde während des Trainings beschrieben, doch gibt es keine wissenschaftlichen ntersuchungen darüber.
Eine Kaubewegung des Pferdes außerhalb der Futteraufnahme wird als „Leerkauen“
definiert. Es ist eine „horizontale Bewegung“ des Unterkiefers gegen den Oberkiefer zu beobachten, vergleichbar mit der Mahlbewegung (Abbildung 1). Häufig ist während des Leerkauens eine Anspannung des oberflächlichen Kaumuskels vom unteren Unterkieferrand aus in Richtung Jochbogen/Crista facialis zu erkennen.
Eine Sonderform des Leerkauens stellt die sogenannte Unterlegenheitsgebärde (UG)
dar (ZEEB 1959b). Es handelt es sich um eine „vertikale Bewegung“ der Unter- und
Oberkiefer voneinander weg und aufeinander zu (Abbildung 2). Ihre Funktion ist die
Beschwichtigung. Unter dem Begriff Leerkauen wird in dieser Dissertation immer die
horizontale Mahlbewegung verstanden.
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Warmuth, V., Eriksson, A., Bower, M. A., Barker, G., Barrett, E., Hanks, B. K., et al. (2012). Reconstructing the origin and spread of horse domestication in the Eurasian steppe. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, .
Abstract: Despite decades of research across multiple disciplines, the early history of horse domestication remains poorly understood. On the basis of current evidence from archaeology, mitochondrial DNA, and Y-chromosomal sequencing, a number of different domestication scenarios have been proposed, ranging from the spread of domestic horses out of a restricted primary area of domestication to the domestication of numerous distinct wild horse populations. In this paper, we reconstruct both the population genetic structure of the extinct wild progenitor of domestic horses, Equus ferus, and the origin and spread of horse domestication in the Eurasian steppes by fitting a spatially explicit stepping-stone model to genotype data from >300 horses sampled across northern Eurasia. We find strong evidence for an expansion of E. ferus out of eastern Eurasia about 160 kya, likely reflecting the colonization of Eurasia by this species. Our best-fitting scenario further suggests that horse domestication originated in the western part of the Eurasian steppe and that domestic herds were repeatedly restocked with local wild horses as they spread out of this area. By showing that horse domestication was initiated in the western Eurasian steppe and that the spread of domestic herds across Eurasia involved extensive introgression from the wild, the scenario of horse domestication proposed here unites evidence from archaeology, mitochondrial DNA, and Y-chromosomal DNA.
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