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DUNCAN P et al,. (1984). On lactation and associated behaviour in natural herd of horses. Hans Klingels Equine Reference List, 32, 255–263.
Abstract: Developmental changes in time spent suckling and related mother-foal behaviour are described in an unmanaged herd of Camargue horses. Male foals spent about 40% more time suckling than females during the first 8 weeks. Body weight did not differ between the sexes but time-budgets did: males grazed less and were more active. If pregnant, the typical multiparous mare nursed her foals for 35–40 weeks, males and females alike, and weaned them 15 weeks before the next foaling. Primiparae lactated longer and weaned closer to the next foaling by 5 weeks. The mares played an active role in regulating the time spent suckling in early, and particularly in late lactation.
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Price, E. O. (1984). Behavioral aspects of animal domestication. Q Rev Biol, 59.
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Sato, S. (1984). Social licking pattern and its relationships to social dominance and live weight gain in weaned calves. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 12(1), 25–32.
Abstract: Social licking patterns of heifer and steer herds were observed and recorded during periods of resting and intermittent feeding. The results revealed the following features: (1) heifers and steers had 15.0 and 15.2 social licking interactions per hour which lasted for 37.8 and 41.0 s on average, respectively. The average time an animal spent licking was about 25 s per hour; (2) all the animals in the herds were licked by others, but only 72.3% of the animals licked other animals; (3) the animals close in the social hierarchy tended to lick each other for a longer time than did remote animals; (4) the time receiving l licking and weight gain tended to be positively correlated. The observations suggest that (1) the motivation of giving licking may be individual-specific and may be influenced by genetic factors, while that of receiving licking appears to be general, and that (2) social licking may mean not only cleaning the skin and hair of a passive partner, but also leading it to psychological stability.
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Sasväri, L. (1985). Different Observational Learning Capacity in Juvenile and Adult Individuals of Congeneric Bird Species. Z. Tierpsychol., 69(4), 293–304.
Abstract: Abstract and Summary: Since the adaptive significance of social organization is emphasized diversely in both anti-predator behaviour and food searching of birds, measures and comparisons of observational learning capacity of various species are needed. Four different experimental situations were built up for juvenile and adult individuals of tits (Parus major, P. caeruleus, P. palustris) and thrushes (Turdus merula, T. philo-melos). The birds learn more easily from conspecifics and learn easily when they already know a previous problem solving situation. The capacity of observational learning of the adult great tits surpasses that of adult blue tits and marsh tits, and that of the adult blackbirds exceeds that of the adult songthrushes. The higher performance of the great tit and blackbird can be related to their greater hemispheric index. The differences in the learning capacity of the naive individuals of the three tit species and that of the two thrush species were not significant. It is suggested, that the higher observational learning of the great tit and blackbird is evolved through maturational processes and can be reflected by their greater adaptability. Zusammenfassung: Lernen durch Nachahmung wurde in vier verschiedenen Situationen mit jungen und alten Individuen von Meisen- (Parus major, P. caeruleus, P. palustris) und Drosselarten (Turdus merula, T. philomelos) untersucht. Die Vögel lernten besser von Artgenossen und lernten leicht, wenn sie vorher bereits eine Problemlösungssituation kannten. Die Lernfähigkeit (durch Nachahmung) alter Kohlmeisen übertraf die alter Blau- und Sumpfmeisen; die Lernfähigkeit alter Amseln übertraf die alter Singdrosseln. Die höhere Leistung der Kohlmeisen und Amseln hängt mit ihrem höheren Hemisphären-Index zusammen. Naive Individuen der Meisen- und Drosselarten zeigten keine signifikanten Unterschiede in ihrer Lernfähigkeit. Es ist anzunehmen, daß die höhere Lernfähigkeit der Kohlmeise und der Amsel im Laufe der Entwicklung durch Reifungsprozesse zustande kommt und sich in ihrer höheren Anpassungsfähig-keit widerspiegelt.
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Crowell-Davis, S. L. (1985). Nursing behaviour and maternal aggression among Welsh ponies (Equus caballus). Appl Anim Behav Sci, 14(1), 11–25.
Abstract: Nursing behaviour and related aggression of mare-foal pairs was studied from birth (n = 21) to 24 weeks of age (n = 15) of the foal. Foals exhibited a decreasing length and frequency of nursing as they grew older. Mares rarely aggressed against their foals during nursing in the foal's first 4 weeks of life, but did so increasingly through Weeks 13-16, after which the rate of aggression during nursing decreased. Mares terminated nursing primarily by moving away, and were most likely to do so during the foal's first 4 weeks of life. They became gradually less likely to do so as the foal grew older. It was concluded that mares sometimes flex their hind limb on the side opposite the foal during nursing in order to conserve energy in a situation in which they would be remaining still anyway. There was no difference between colts and fillies in the frequency or duration of nursing or in the frequency with which their mothers aggressed against them or terminated nursing.
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Blakeman, N. E., & Friend, T. H. (1986). Visual discrimination at varying distances in Spanish goats. Appl Anim Behav Sci, 16.
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Crowell-Davis, S. L. (1986). Spatial relations between mares and foals of the Welsh pony (Equus caballus). Anim Beh, 34(4), 1007–1015.
Abstract: Welsh pony mares and foals (Equus caballus) were usually found to be within 1 or 5 m of each other during the first week of the foal's life and gradually spent more time at greater distances as the foals became older. There was an overall levelling of the trend during the 9th-15th weeks of life of the foal, followed by a second period of change during weeks 16-24. Through weeks 21-24, mares and foals spent at least half of their time within 5 m of each other. Proximity was primarily due to foal activity except during foal recumbency. During the first 8 weeks of the foal's life, a mare remained close by when it was recumbent, either by grazing in a circle around it or by standing upright beside it. Mares and foals were most likely to be close together when they were resting upright with the other ponies in the herd and most likely to be far apart when the foal was playing. Similarities in patterns of spatial relationship between the foals of a given mare were demonstrated. There was no difference between colts and filies in the development of independence.
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Rutberg, A. T. (1987). Horse Fly Harassment and the Social Behavior of Feral Ponies. Ethology, 75(2), 145–154.
Abstract: Abstract Horse flies (Tabanidae) on and around feral ponies in harem groups were counted at Assateague Island National Seashore, Maryland, U.S.A., between June and August 1985. Harem stallions attracted the most flies; adult mares showed intermediate fly numbers, while few flies landed on foals under any circumstances. The use of thermal and chemical cues by flies selecting a host may have helped create this disparity. When flies were abundant, ponies reduced spacing within the group. Ponies in larger groups suffered from fewer flies than ponies in smaller groups. There was, however, no evidence that ponies merged into larger groups in response to fly harassment, suggesting that biting flies play little role in structuring pony social organization.
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Harrington, F. H. (1987). Aggressive howling in wolves. Anim Behav, 35.
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Drevemo, S., Fredricson, I., Hjertén, G., & McMIKEN, D. (1987). Early development of gait asymmetries in trotting Standardbred colts. Equine. Vet. J., 19(3), 189–191.
Abstract: Summary Ten trotting Standardbred colts were recorded by high-speed cinematography at the ages of eight, 12 and 18 months. The horses were trotting on a treadmill operating at 4.0 m/secs. Five horses were subjected to a programme of intensified training from eight months of age, whereas the others were not trained and acted as controls. The films were analysed on a semi-automatic film-reading equipment and a number of variables used to demonstrate the gait symmetry were calculated and scaled by computer. Certain differences between left and right diagonal and contralateral pair of limbs, respectively, were noted, suggesting that laterality in horses may be inherited. The most pronounced systematic differences were found in 18-month old horses in the trained group. The results show the importance of careful gait examination and comprehensive coordination training at an early age.
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