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Mejdell, C. M., Buvik, T., Jørgensen, G. H. M., & Bøe, K. E. (2016). Horses can learn to use symbols to communicate their preferences. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 184, 66–73.
Abstract: This paper describes a method in which horses learn to communicate by touching different neutral visual symbols, in order to tell the handler whether they want to have a blanket on or not. Horses were trained for 10-15min per day, following a training program comprising ten steps in a strategic order. Reward based operant conditioning was used to teach horses to approach and touch a board, and to understand the meaning of three different symbols. Heat and cold challenges were performed to help learning and to check level of understanding. At certain stages, a learning criterion of correct responses for 8-14 successive trials had to be achieved before proceeding. After introducing the free choice situation, on average at training day 11, the horse could choose between a “no change” symbol and the symbol for either “blanket on” or “blanket off” depending on whether the horse already wore a blanket or not. A cut off point for performance or non-performance was set to day 14, and 23/23 horses successfully learned the task within this limit. Horses of warm-blood type needed fewer training days to reach criterion than cold-bloods (P<0.05). Horses were then tested under differing weather conditions. Results show that choices made, i.e. the symbol touched, was not random but dependent on weather. Horses chose to stay without a blanket in nice weather, and they chose to have a blanket on when the weather was wet, windy and cold (χ2=36.67, P<0.005). This indicates that horses both had an understanding of the consequence of their choice on own thermal comfort, and that they successfully had learned to communicate their preference by using the symbols. The method represents a novel tool for studying preferences in horses.
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Mejdell, C. M., Buvik, T., Jørgensen, G. H. M., & Bøe, K. E. (2016). Horses can learn to use symbols to communicate their preferences. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 184, 66–73.
Abstract: This paper describes a method in which horses learn to communicate by touching different neutral visual symbols, in order to tell the handler whether they want to have a blanket on or not. Horses were trained for 10-15min per day, following a training program comprising ten steps in a strategic order. Reward based operant conditioning was used to teach horses to approach and touch a board, and to understand the meaning of three different symbols. Heat and cold challenges were performed to help learning and to check level of understanding. At certain stages, a learning criterion of correct responses for 8-14 successive trials had to be achieved before proceeding. After introducing the free choice situation, on average at training day 11, the horse could choose between a “no change” symbol and the symbol for either “blanket on” or “blanket off” depending on whether the horse already wore a blanket or not. A cut off point for performance or non-performance was set to day 14, and 23/23 horses successfully learned the task within this limit. Horses of warm-blood type needed fewer training days to reach criterion than cold-bloods (P<0.05). Horses were then tested under differing weather conditions. Results show that choices made, i.e. the symbol touched, was not random but dependent on weather. Horses chose to stay without a blanket in nice weather, and they chose to have a blanket on when the weather was wet, windy and cold (χ2=36.67, P<0.005). This indicates that horses both had an understanding of the consequence of their choice on own thermal comfort, and that they successfully had learned to communicate their preference by using the symbols. The method represents a novel tool for studying preferences in horses.
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Mejdell, C. M., Buvik, T., Jørgensen, G. H. M., & Bøe, K. E. (2016). Horses can learn to use symbols to communicate their preferences. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 184, 66–73.
Abstract: Abstract This paper describes a method in which horses learn to communicate by touching different neutral visual symbols, in order to tell the handler whether they want to have a blanket on or not. Horses were trained for 10–15 min per day, following a training program comprising ten steps in a strategic order. Reward based operant conditioning was used to teach horses to approach and touch a board, and to understand the meaning of three different symbols. Heat and cold challenges were performed to help learning and to check level of understanding. At certain stages, a learning criterion of correct responses for 8–14 successive trials had to be achieved before proceeding. After introducing the free choice situation, on average at training day 11, the horse could choose between a “no change” symbol and the symbol for either “blanket on” or “blanket off” depending on whether the horse already wore a blanket or not. A cut off point for performance or non-performance was set to day 14, and 23/23 horses successfully learned the task within this limit. Horses of warm-blood type needed fewer training days to reach criterion than cold-bloods (P < 0.05). Horses were then tested under differing weather conditions. Results show that choices made, i.e. the symbol touched, was not random but dependent on weather. Horses chose to stay without a blanket in nice weather, and they chose to have a blanket on when the weather was wet, windy and cold (χ2 = 36.67, P < 0.005). This indicates that horses both had an understanding of the consequence of their choice on own thermal comfort, and that they successfully had learned to communicate their preference by using the symbols. The method represents a novel tool for studying preferences in horses.
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Turner, K. K., Nielsen, B. D., O'Connor, C. I., & Burton, J. L. (2006). Bee pollen product supplementation to horses in training seems to improve feed intake: A pilot study. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl), 90(9-10), 414–420.
Abstract: The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of supplementation of Dynamic Trio 50/50, a bee pollen-based product, to improve physical fitness, blood leukocyte profiles, and nutritional variables in exercised horses. Ten Arabian horses underwent a standardised exercise test (SET), then were pair-matched by sex and fitness and randomly assigned to BP (receiving 118 g of Dynamic Trio 50/50 daily) or CO (receiving 73 g of a placebo) for a period of 42 days. A total collection was conducted from days 18 to 21 on six geldings to determine nutrient retention and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) digestibility. Horses were exercise conditioned and completed another SET on day 42. V160 and V200 were calculated from SET heart rates (HR). Lactate, glucose, haematocrit (HT) and haemoglobin (HB) concentrations were determined from SET blood samples. Total leukocyte count, and circulating numbers of various leukocytes and IgG, IgM and IgA concentrations were determined in rest and recovery blood samples from both SETs. Geldings on BP (n = 3) ate more feed than CO. BP had less phosphorus excretion, and tended to retain more nitrogen. BP tended to digest more NDF and ADF while having lower NDF digestibility and tending to have lower ADF digestibility. No treatment differences existed for V160 and V200, HR, lactate, HT and HB. There was a trend for lymphocyte counts to be lower in BP than CO on day 42. Dynamic Trio 50/50 supplementation may have a positive effect on performance by helping horses in training meet their potentially increased nutrient demands by increasing feed intake and thus nutrient retention.
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Touma, C., Palme, R., & Sachser, N. (2004). Analyzing corticosterone metabolites in fecal samples of mice: a noninvasive technique to monitor stress hormones. Horm Behav, 45(1), 10–22.
Abstract: In small animals like mice, the monitoring of endocrine functions over time is constrained seriously by the adverse effects of blood sampling. Therefore, noninvasive techniques to monitor, for example, stress hormones in these animals are highly demanded in laboratory as well as in field research. The aim of our study was to evaluate the biological relevance of a recently developed technique to monitor stress hormone metabolites in fecal samples of laboratory mice. In total, six experiments were performed using six male and six female mice each. Two adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge tests, two dexamethasone (Dex) suppression tests and two control experiments [investigating effects of the injection procedure itself and the diurnal variation (DV) of glucocorticoids (GCs), respectively] were conducted. The experiments clearly demonstrated that pharmacological stimulation and suppression of adrenocortical activity was reflected accurately by means of corticosterone metabolite (CM) measurements in the feces of males and females. Furthermore, the technique proved sensitive enough to detect dosage-dependent effects of the ACTH/Dex treatment and facilitated to reveal profound effects of the injection procedure itself. Even the naturally occurring DV of GCs could be monitored reliably. Thus, our results confirm that measurement of fecal CM with the recently established 5alpha-pregnane-3beta,11beta,21-triol-20-one enzyme immunoassay is a very powerful tool to monitor adrenocortical activity in laboratory mice. Since mice represent the vast majority of all rodents used for research worldwide and the number of transgenic and knockout mice utilized as animal models is still increasing, this noninvasive technique can open new perspectives in biomedical and behavioral science.
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Heistermann, M., Palme, R., & Ganswindt, A. (2006). Comparison of different enzyme-immunoassays for assessment of adrenocortical activity in primates based on fecal analysis. Am. J. Primatol., 68(3), 257–273.
Abstract: Most studies published to date that used fecal glucocorticoid measurements to assess adrenocortical activity in primate (and many nonprimate) species applied a specific cortisol or corticosterone assay. However, since these native glucocorticoids are virtually absent in the feces of most vertebrates, including primates, the validity of this approach has recently been questioned. Therefore, the overall aim of the present study was to assess the validity of four enzyme-immunoassays (EIAs) using antibodies raised against cortisol, corticosterone, and reduced cortisol metabolites (two group-specific antibodies) for assessing adrenocortical activity using fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (GCM) measurements in selected primate species (marmoset, long-tailed macaque, Barbary macaque, chimpanzee, and gorilla). Using physiological stimulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis by administering exogenous ACTH or anesthesia, we demonstrated that at least two assays detected the predicted increase in fecal GCM levels in response to treatment in each species. However, the magnitude of response varied between assays and species, and no one assay was applicable to all species. While the corticosterone assay generally was of only limited suitability for assessing glucocorticoid output, the specific cortisol assay was valuable for those species that (according to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis data) excreted clearly detectable amounts of authentic cortisol into the feces. In contrast, in species in which cortisol was virtually absent in the feces, group-specific assays provided a much stronger signal, and these assays also performed well in the other primate species tested (except the marmoset). Collectively, the data suggest that the reliability of a given fecal glucocorticoid assay in reflecting activity of the HPA axis in primates clearly depends on the species in question. Although to date there is no single assay system that can be used successfully across species, our data suggest that group-specific assays have a high potential for cross-species application. Nevertheless, regardless of which GC antibody is chosen, our study clearly reinforces the necessity of appropriately validating the respective assay system before it is used.
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Matzke, S. M., Oubre, J. L., Caranto, G. R., Gentry, M. K., & Galbicka, G. (1999). Behavioral and immunological effects of exogenous butyrylcholinesterase in rhesus monkeys. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 62(3), 523–530.
Abstract: Although conventional therapies prevent organophosphate (OP) lethality, laboratory animals exposed to such treatments typically display behavioral incapacitation. Pretreatment with purified exogenous human or equine serum butyrylcholinesterase (Eq-BuChE), conversely, has effectively prevented OP lethality in rats and rhesus monkeys, without producing the adverse side effects associated with conventional treatments. In monkeys, however, using a commercial preparation of Eq-BuChE has been reported to incapacitate responding. In the present study, repeated administration of commercially prepared Eq-BuChE had no systematic effect on behavior in rhesus monkeys as measured by a six-item serial probe recognition task, despite 7- to 18-fold increases in baseline BuChE levels in blood. Antibody production induced by the enzyme was slight after the first injection and more pronounced following the second injection. The lack of behavioral effects, the relatively long in vivo half-life, and the previously demonstrated efficacy of BuChE as a biological scavenger for highly toxic OPs make BuChE potentially more effective than current treatment regimens for OP toxicity.
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Hada, T., Ohmura, H., Mukai, K., Eto, D., Takahashi, T., & Hiraga, A. (2006). Utilisation of the time constant calculated from heart rate recovery after exercise for evaluation of autonomic activity in horses. Equine Vet J Suppl, (36), 141–145.
Abstract: REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Heart rate (HR) recovery immediately after exercise is controlled by autonomic functions and the time constant (T) calculated from HR recovery is thought to be an index of parasympathetic activity in man. OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether it is possible to evaluate autonomic function using the time constant in horses. METHODS: Five Thoroughbred horses were subjected to a standard exercise test. Following pre-medication with saline, atropine and/or propranolol, the horses ran for 2.5 min at a speed of 8 m/sec at a 10% incline and T was calculated from HR after the exercise. Secondly, 7 Thoroughbred horses were then trained for 11 weeks and T and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) measured at intervals of 1 or 2 weeks. In 6 horses, T with atropine pre-medication was also measured before and after the whole training period. Furthermore, the HR variability at rest was evaluated by power spectral analysis at intervals of 3 or 4 weeks. RESULTS: Time constant was increased by atropine and/or propranolol pre-medication, decreased with the progress of training and inversely correlated with VO2max during training (r = 0.43, P<0.005). Parasympathetic blockade significantly decreased T only after and not before, the training; however, T was lower in post training than in pretraining, irrespective of parasympathetic blockade. On the other hand, parasympathetic activity at rest was attenuated and sympathetic activity became predominant following the training. CONCLUSION: Heart rate recovery is affected by sympathetic withdrawal and parasympathetic reactivation in horses and suggests that physical training hastened HR recovery by improving the parasympathetic function after exercise with aerobic capacity. However, the effects of other factors need to be considered because the training effect appeared on T even under parasympathetic blockade. The parasympathetic activity at rest is in contrast to that after exercise, suggesting that T does not reflect parasympathetic activity at rest. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: If demonstrated how HR recovery is controlled after exercise, its analysis will be important in the evaluation of physical fitness in horses.
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Tsong, T. Y. (1977). Conformational relaxations of urea- and guanidine hydrochloride-unfolded ferricytochrome c. J Biol Chem, 252(24), 8778–8780.
Abstract: Several recent studies of protein the unfolded proteins. In urea- and guanidine HCl-unfolded ferricytochrome c (horse heart), an acid-induced spin state transformation of the heme group has been detected by the heme absorptions, Trp-59 fluorescence, and the intrinsic viscosity of protein. Kinetics of this second conformational transition, by the temperature jump and stopped flow methods, are complex. One rapid reaction (tau1), pH-independent, occurs in a 50-mus range; the second reaction (tau2), in a 1-ms range, depends linearly upon pH and is faster at the alkaline side; a third reaction (tau3), in a 1-s range, shows a sigmoidal transition at pH 5.1 and is faster at the acidic side. The results are consistent with a kinetic scheme which involves protein conformational changes in the transformation of the heme coordination state. The kinetics, along with previous equilibrium studies, indicate that ligand or charge interactions within a protein molecule are not completely prohibited even in strongly denaturing conditions, such as in high concentrations of urea and guanidine HCl. Thus, local structures of peptide chain associated with these interactions can exist in the unfolded protein.
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Wilson, M. T., Silvestrini, M. C., Morpurgo, L., & Brunori, M. (1979). Electron transfer kinetics between Rhus vernicifera stellacyanin and cytochrome c (horse heart cytochrome c and Pseudomonas cytochrome c551). J Inorg Biochem, 11(2), 95–100.
Abstract: The electron transfer reactions between Rhus vernicifera stellacyanin and either horse heart cytochrome c or Pseudomonas aeruginosa cytochrome c551 were investigated by rapid reaction techniques. The time course of electron transfer is monophasic under all conditions, and thus consistent with a simple formulation of the reaction. Both stopped-flow and temperature-jump experiments yield equilibrium constants in reasonable agreement with values calculated from the redox potentials. The differences in reaction rate between the two cytochromes and stellacyanin are discussed in terms of the Marcus theory.
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