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Christensen, J. W., Munk, R., Hawson, L., Palme, R., Larsen, T., Egenvall, A., et al. (2021). Rider effects on horses' conflict behaviour, rein tension, physiological measures and rideability scores. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 234, 105184.
Abstract: Many breeding organisations include a subjective scoring of rideability by a professional rider into their evaluation of sports horses, but the consistency and reliability of the scoring system is debateable. The aim of this study was to investigate (i) whether professional riders agree in their scoring of rideability, and (ii) whether rideability scores are affected by rein tension, horse conflict behaviour, heart rate, and salivary cortisol, and (iii) whether riders induce different levels of conflict behaviour and physiological responses in the horses. Ten professional, female riders each rode 10 dressage horses (level M German scale; n = 100 combinations) through a standardised dressage test (10 min warm-up followed by a 4-min test) and subsequently scored the horses for rideability on the official 1-10 scale (1 = poor to 10 = excellent) from the Danish Riding Federation. Rein tension, horse heart rate, saliva cortisol and conflict behaviour were measured for each rider-horse pair. The riders were inconsistent in their scoring of rideability to the individual horses, e.g. scores for one of the horses ranged from 1 to 8. There was a significant effect of rider (P = 0.003) and the frequency of conflict behaviour (undesired head movements: P < 0.001, breaking the gait: P = 0.013, and other evasive behaviour: P = 0.032) on rideability scores, i.e. the more conflict behaviour the lower the score. There was no significant effect of rein tension and the physiological measures on rideability scores. However, there was a significant effect of rider on rein tension, horses' heart rate and increases in saliva cortisol concentrations and a tendency for some types of conflict behaviour, suggesting that some riders induced more discomfort in the horses. Future studies could help shed light on which elements of riding style are particularly important for sports horse welfare. In conclusion, this study found a large variation in rideability scores assigned to ten sports horses by ten professional riders. Rideability scores were dependent on the level of horse conflict behaviour, but not rein tension and physiological measures. Further studies are needed to improve the objectivity, consistency and reliability of rideability assessment of sports horses.
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Vitale, V., Balocchi, R., Varanini, M., Sgorbini, M., Macerata, A., Sighieri, C., et al. (2013). The effects of restriction of movement on the reliability of heart rate variability measurements in the horse (Equus caballus). J. Vet. Behav., 8(5), 400–403.
Abstract: Analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) is a noninvasive approach for investigating the sympathovagal balance of the autonomic nervous system. In recent years, HRV has been increasingly evaluated in animal research. In horses, it has been suggested that basal resting conditions can be achieved by restraining them. The aim of this study was to verify how restriction of movement influences HRV i2n horses. Ten healthy standardbred mares were used to measure the electrocardiographic signal under 2 conditions: free to move in the stall and restrained in the stock. Results indicate that the restriction of movement is associated with increased nervous system sympathetic activity not consistent with resting conditions.
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Hendriksen, P., Elmgreen, K., & Ladewig, J. (2011). Trailer-loading of horses: Is there a difference between positive and negative reinforcement concerning effectiveness and stress-related signs? J. Vet. Behav., 6(5), 261–266.
Abstract: The traditional way to train horses is by the application of negative reinforcement (NR). In the past few years, however, the use of positive reinforcement (PR) has become more common. To evaluate the effectiveness and the possible stressor effect of the 2 training methods, 12 horses showing severe trailer-loading problems were selected and exposed to trailer-loading. They were randomly assigned to one of the 2 methods. NR consisted of various degrees of pressure (lead rope pulling, whip tapping). Pressure was removed as soon as the horse complied. PR horses were exposed to clicker training and taught to follow a target into the trailer. Heart rate (HR) was recorded every 5 seconds and behavior denoting discomfort was observed using one-zero sampling with 10 seconds sampling intervals. Training was completed when the horse could enter the trailer upon a signal, or was terminated after a maximum of 15 sessions. Of the 12 horses, 10 reached the criterion within the 15 sessions. One horse was eliminated from the study because of illness and 1 PR horse failed to enter the trailer. A Mann-Whitney U-test indicated that the horses trained with NR displayed significantly more discomfort behavior per training session than horses trained with PR (NR: 13.26 ± 3.25; PR: 3.17 ± 8.93, P < 0.0001) and that horses in the PR group spent less time (second) per session to complete the training criterion (NR: 672.9 ± 247.12; PR: 539.81 ± 166.37, P < 0.01). A Mann-Whitney U-test showed that no difference existed in mean HR (bpm) between the 2 groups (NR: 53.06 ± 11.73 bpm; PR: 55.54 ± 6.7 bpm, P > 0.05), but a Wilcoxon test showed a difference in the PR group between the baseline of HR and mean HR obtained during training sessions (baseline PR: 43 ± 8.83 bpm; PR: 55.54 ± 6.7 bpm, P < 0.05). In conclusion, the PR group provided the fastest training solution and expressed less stress response. Thus, the PR procedure could provide a preferable training solution when training horses in potentially stressing situations.
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Merkies, K., McKechnie, M. J., & Zakrajsek, E. (2018). Behavioural and physiological responses of therapy horses to mentally traumatized humans. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, .
Abstract: The benefits to humans of equine-assisted therapy (EAT) have been well-researched, however few studies have analyzed the effects on the horse. Understanding how differing mental states of humans affect the behaviour and response of the horse can assist in providing optimal outcomes for both horse and human. Four humans clinically diagnosed and under care of a psychotherapist for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) were matched physically to four neurotypical control humans and individually subjected to each of 17 therapy horses loose in a round pen. A professional acting coach instructed the control humans in replicating the physical movements of their paired PTSD individual. Both horses and humans were equipped with a heart rate (HR) monitor recording HR every 5secs. Saliva samples were collected from each horse 30 min before and 30 min after each trial to analyze cortisol concentrations. Each trial consisted of 5 min of baseline observation of the horse alone in the round pen after which the human entered the round pen for 2 min, followed by an additional 5 min of the horse alone. Behavioural observations indicative of stress in the horse (gait, head height, ear orientation, body orientation, distance from the human, latency of approach to the human, vocalizations, and chewing) were retrospectively collected from video recordings of each trial and analyzed using a repeated measures GLIMMIX with Tukey's multiple comparisons for differences between treatments and time periods. Horses moved slower (p < 0.0001), carried their head lower (p < 0.0001), vocalized less (p < 0.0001), and chewed less (p < 0.0001) when any human was present with them in the round pen. Horse HR increased in the presence of the PTSD humans, even after the PTSD human left the pen (p < 0.0001). Since two of the PTSD/control human pairs were experienced with horses and two were not, a post-hoc analysis showed that horses approached quicker (p < 0.016) and stood closer (p < 0.0082) to humans who were experienced with horses. Horse HR was lower when with inexperienced humans (p < 0.0001) whereas inexperienced human HR was higher (p < 0.0001). Horse salivary cortisol did not differ between exposure to PTSD and control humans (p > 0.32). Overall, behavioural and physiological responses of horses to humans are more pronounced based on human experience with horses than whether the human is diagnosed with a mental disorder. This may be a reflection of a directness of movement associated with humans who are experienced with horses that makes the horse more attentive. It appears that horses respond more to physical cues from the human rather than emotional cues. This knowledge is important in tailoring therapy programs and justifying horse responses when interacting with a patient in a therapy setting.
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A. Lanata, A. Guidi, G. Valenza, P. Baragli, & E. P. Scilingo. (2016). Quantitative heartbeat coupling measures in human-horse interaction. In 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) (pp. 2696–2699). 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (E.
Abstract: Abstract— We present a study focused on a quantitative estimation of a human-horse dynamic interaction. A set of measures based on magnitude and phase coupling between heartbeat dynamics of both humans and horses in three different conditions is reported: no interaction, visual/olfactory interaction and grooming. Specifically, Magnitude Squared Coherence (MSC), Mean Phase Coherence (MPC) and Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) have been used as estimators of the amount of coupling between human and horse through the analysis of their heart rate variability (HRV) time series in a group of eleven human subjects, and one horse. The rationale behind this study is that the interaction of two complex biological systems go towards a coupling process whose dynamical evolution is modulated by the kind and time duration of the interaction itself. We achieved a congruent and consistent
statistical significant difference for all of the three indices. Moreover, a Nearest Mean Classifier was able to recognize the three classes of interaction with an accuracy greater than 70%. Although preliminary, these encouraging results allow a discrimination of three distinct phases in a real human-animal interaction opening to the characterization of the empirically proven relationship between human and horse.
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König v. Borstel, U., Visser, E. K., & Hall, C. (2017). Indicators of stress in equitation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 190, 43–56.
Abstract: Abstract Stress is a generic concept describing the body's reaction to external stimuli, including both physiological and psychological factors. Therefore, by definition, the assessment of psychological stress in the exercising horse encompasses the problem of teasing apart the psychological and physiological factors both of which result in stress responses. The present study reviews the existing literature on various measures of stress taken specifically in the context of equitation science. Particular attention has been paid to short-term effects, and commonly used measurements of short-term stress include heart rate, a number of heart rate variability parameters, blood or saliva cortisol levels, eye temperature, and various behaviour parameters including in particular behaviour patterns presumably indicative of conflict with the rider's/trainer's aids. Inspection of the individual studies' results revealed that disagreement between these different measures of stress is commonplace. For physiological parameters, the largest proportion of agreement (i.e. both parameters simultaneously indicated either higher, insignificant or lower stress compared to a control treatment) was found for heart rate and heart rate variability parameters, while generally limited agreement was found for cortisol. It appears that cortisol levels may not be particularly useful for assessing/assessment of the valence of a situation in the exercising horse as cortisol levels are predominantly linked to activation and exercise levels. Although heart rate variability parameters reflect in theory more closely sympathovagal balance compared to cortisol levels, great care has to be taken regarding the use of appropriate time-frames, appropriate raw data correction methods as well as the use of appropriate equipment. In spite of its wide-spread and apparently successful use, popular equipment may in fact not be accurate enough under field conditions. Eye temperature is another promising parameter for assessment of psychological stress, but the technique is likewise susceptible to application errors. Given the high susceptibility of physiological parameters to errors at various experimental stages, behavioural rather than physiological parameters may in fact provide more accurate measures of valence when conducting experiments in the exercising horse. Behavioural parameters that appear to be particularly practical in assessing stress in ridden horses' behaviour are associated with frequencies of behaviour indicative of conflict. However, while increased frequencies of are a good indicator of stress, the absence of conflict behaviour does not provide proof of the absence of stress due to the possible occurrence of conditions such as Learned Helplessness. In future studies, the above issues should be taken into consideration when designing experiments to assess psychological stress in ridden horses.
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Leliveld, L. M. C., Düpjan, S., Tuchscherer, A., & Puppe, B. (2016). Behavioural and physiological measures indicate subtle variations in the emotional valence of young pigs. Physiol. Behav., 157, 116–124.
Abstract: Abstract In the study of animal emotions, emotional valence has been found to be difficult to measure. Many studies of farm animals' emotions have therefore focussed on the identification of indicators of strong, mainly negative, emotions. However, subtle variations in emotional valence, such as those caused by rather moderate differences in husbandry conditions, may also affect animals' mood and welfare when such variations occur consistently. In this study, we investigated whether repeated moderate aversive or rewarding events could lead to measurable differences in emotional valence in young, weaned pigs. We conditioned 105 female pigs in a test arena to either a repeated startling procedure (sudden noises or appearances of objects) or a repeated rewarding procedure (applesauce, toy and straw) over 11 sessions. Control pigs were also regularly exposed to the same test arena but without conditioning. Before and after conditioning, we measured heart rate and its variability as well as the behavioural reactions of the subjects in the test arena, with a special focus on detailed acoustic analyses of their vocalisations. The behavioural and heart rate measures were analysed as changes compared to the baseline values before conditioning. A limited number of the putative indicators of emotional valence were affected by the conditioning. We found that the negatively conditioned pigs showed changes that were significantly different from those in control pigs, namely a decrease in locomotion and an increase in standing. The positively conditioned pigs, however, showed a stronger increase in heart rate and a smaller decrease in SDNN (a heart rate variability parameter indicating changes in autonomic regulation) compared to the controls. Compared to the negatively conditioned pigs, the positively conditioned pigs produced fewer vocalisations overall as well as fewer low-frequency grunts but more high-frequency grunts. The low-frequency grunts of the negatively conditioned pigs also showed lower frequency parameters (bandwidth, maximum frequency, 25% and 50% quartiles) compared to those of the positively conditioned pigs. In any of the statistically significant results, the conditioning accounted for 1.5–11.9% of variability in the outcome variable. Hence, we conclude that repeated moderate aversive and rewarding events have weak but measurable effects on some aspects of behaviour and physiology in young pigs, possibly indicating changes in emotional valence, which could ultimately affect their welfare. The combination of ethophysiological indicators, i.e., the concurrent examination of heart rate measures, behavioural responses and especially vocalisation patterns, as used in the current study, might be a useful way of examining subtle effects on emotional valence in further studies.
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Rørvang, M. V., Ahrendt, L. P., & Christensen, J. W. (2015). A trained demonstrator has a calming effect on naïve horses when crossing a novel surface. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 171, 117–120.
Abstract: Abstract Habituated horses have been found to have a calming effect on conspecifics in fear-eliciting situations. In practice, experienced horses are often used as companions when young horses are introduced to potentially frightening situations, like loading onto a trailer. However, studies of social transmission of habituation in horses are scarce. This study investigated if demonstration by a habituated demonstrator horse influenced the willingness of young Icelandic horses (n = 22, 3 years old) to cross a novel surface. Observer horses (n = 11) were allowed to observe the similarly aged demonstrator horse being led five times across a novel surface. Immediately afterwards the observer horses were given the opportunity to cross the novel surface themselves to obtain food on the other side. Controls (n = 11) were allowed to observe the demonstrator eating on the opposite side of the novel surface but not the demonstration of crossing the novel surface. All observers and controls succeeded the task, but observers had significantly lower average and maximum heart rate, compared to controls. This result suggests a calming effect of the demonstration, which could be exploited for habituation training of horses in fear-eliciting situations.
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Keeling, L. J., Jonare, L., & Lanneborn, L. (2009). Investigating horse–human interactions: The effect of a nervous human. Vet J, 181(1), 70–71.
Abstract: The heart rates (HR) of horses and the people leading them (10 horses, 20 people), and riding them (17 horses, 17 people), were recorded in an indoor arena. The horses were Swedish leisure horses of mixed ages, sex and breed. All except two of the people were female and all were of mixed age and riding experience. Each horse–human pair walked or rode between points A and B (30 m) four times on each test occasion. However, just before the fourth pass, participants were told that an umbrella would be opened as they rode, or led, the horse past the assistant. The umbrella was not opened, so this pass was no different to the previous control occasions, but nevertheless there was an increase in HR for both the person (leading, P = 0.06; riding, P < 0.05) and the horse (being led, P < 0.05; being ridden, P < 0.05). The findings indicate that analysis of HR recorded simultaneously from people and horses under different experimental handling or riding conditions presents a useful tool to investigate horse–human interactions.
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Zeitler-Feicht, M. H., Streit, S., & Dempfle, L. (2011). Automatic feeding systems for horses in group housing systems with regard to animal welfare. Part 2: Comparison of different automatic feeding systems. Tierärztl Prax, 39(G), 33–40.
Abstract: Ziel: Überprüfung der Tiergerechtheit von in der Bauweise unterschiedlichen
Futterabrufstationen für Pferde in Gruppenhaltung anhand ethologischer
und physiologischer Parameter. Material und Methoden: In 32
Offenlaufställen (452 Pferde) mit computergesteuerten Abrufstationen
für Kraftfutter und Heu erfolgten kontinuierliche Direktbeobachtungen
für je einen 24-Stunden-Tag (Tortenstückverfahren). Erfasst wurden: Aufenthaltsdauer,
Besuchshäufigkeit, Droh- und Meideverhalten im Fütterungsbereich,
Blockaden sowie Herzfrequenz und Integumentverletzungen.
Ergebnisse: Eine Durchlaufstation reduzierte die Zahl der Auseinandersetzungen
im Fütterungsbereich signifikant. Ansonsten erhöhten die
für das fressende Pferd tiergerechten Varianten (Fressstand mit Eingangssperre,
ohne Austreibehilfe) Besuchshäufigkeit und Aufenthaltsdauer und
steigerten somit auch die Anzahl an Drohgesten je Tier und Tag. Insgesamt
betrachtet kann jedoch die Anzahl an sozionegativen Interaktionen
im Fütterungsbereich der Abrufstationen als relativ gering eingestuft
werden. Die Herzfrequenz lag im Warteareal bei den meisten Pferden im
physiologischen Bereich (45,1 ± 12,42 Schläge/min), erhöhte sich jedoch
in der Abrufstation um ca. 20 Schläge/min. Einige Tiere zeigten möglicherweise
stressbedingt kurzfristig auffallend hohe Werte (≥ 100 Schläge/
min). Integumentverletzungen im Zusammenhang mit dem Fütterungssystem
traten nicht auf. Der wichtigste Einflussfaktor auf die Untersuchungskriterien
war der Betrieb (Fläche, Konzeption, Management).
Schlussfolgerung: Durchlaufstationen sind pferdegerechter als Rücklaufstationen.
Nicht tiergerecht sind Stationen mit stromführender Austreibehilfe.
Weitere bauliche Unterschiede der derzeitigen Futterabrufstationen
dürften eher von untergeordneter Bedeutung sein, vor allem da
Flächengebot und Konzeption der Offenstallanlage sowie das Management
die überprüften Kriterien zur Tiergerechtheit maßgeblich beeinflussen.
Untersuchungen zur Abklärung der Ursache für die vereinzelt aufgetretenen
sehr hohen Herzfrequenzwerte sollten durchgeführt werden.
Objective: Comparison with regard to animal welfare of different automatic
feeding systems for hay and concentrate in group housing systems
for horses using parameters of ethology and physiology. Material and
methods: Parameters of research comprised: duration of stay, frequency
of visit, threatening behaviour with and without risk of injury, and avoiding
behaviour as well as heart rate and injuries of the integument. 452
horses were observed at the feeding area of 32 run-out-sheds. Every group
of horses was continuously observed following the pie chart system for
24 hours. Results: The “walk-through” station significantly reduced the
number of conflicts in the feeding area, whereas those systems which are
appropriate for the feeding horses (feeding station with access barrier and
without stimulation device by electric shock) led to a higher frequency of
visits and a longer duration of stay resulting in more threatening gestures.
However, the number of negative interactions in the feeding area of the
feeding systems can all together be classified as relatively insignificant.
The heart rate was within the physiological range (45.1 ± 12.42 beats/min)
in the waiting area, but increased by approximately 20 beats/min on average
within the feeding station. Some horses showed a very high heart rate
(≥ 100 beats/min) while entering the feeding station, possibly stress-related.
There were no injuries of the integument associated with the feeding
systems. The most important factor of the observation criteria was the
individual group housing system with its different dimensions, conception
and management. Conclusion: “Walk-through” stations are better than
”walk-back” stations with regard to animal welfare. Likewise, automatic
feeding stations with a current-carrying stimulation device are not supportive
of good welfare. The other differences between the constructions
of feeding stations of present systems are probably of less importance, particularly
as it was shown that the stable (management, stable area, conception)
had a significant influence on the surveyed parameters. Investigations
to obtain information on the cause for the sporadic occurrence of
very high heart rate values should be undertaken.]
Keywords: Pferd, Fütterungssystem, Bauvarianten, soziale Interaktionen, Besuchshäufigkeit, Aufenthaltsdauer, Herzfrequenz, Verletzungsrisiko [Horse, feeding system, different types of construction, social interactions, visiting frequency, duration of stay, heart rate, risk of injury]
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