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Keil, N. M., Sambraus, H.H. (1998). “Intervenors” in agonistic interactions amongst domesticated goats. Z. Säugetierk., 63(5), 266–272.
Abstract: Social behaviour was observed in individually marked goats in two herds. The goats from one herd (n = 98) were horned, those of the other herd (n = 83) were polled. By recording agonistic interactions within the herds, a dominance index was determined for each animal. In both herds, intervention took place. Intervention is defined as one animal pushing in between two fighters, and thus ending the fight. More cases of intervention took place per individual animal amongst the horned goats than amongst the polled ones. Goats which intervened in fights on several occasions usually had a high dominance index. Members of the herd which were observed intervening only once had an average dominance index in both herds of almost 0.5. In some cases, goats very low in the rank order intervened a fight. Only rarely did the intervenors have a lower dominance index than the two fighters. In 103 cases, the direct dominance relationship between a fighting animal and the intervenor was known. In 95 cases (92.2%), the intervenor was dominant to the herd member in this fight and in just eight cases (7.8%), it was subordinate. It could not be determined what advantage the intervenor gained from its activity. It is possible that, at least in certain cases, a particularly relationship existed between the intervenor and one of the fighters.
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Krueger, K., Schneider, G., Flauger, B., & Heinze, J. (2015). Context-dependent third-party intervention in agonistic encounters of male Przewalski horses. Behav. Process., 121, 54–62.
Abstract: Abstract One mechanism to resolve conflict among group members is third party intervention, for which several functions, such as kin protection, alliance formation, and the promotion of group cohesion have been proposed. Still, empirical research on the function of intervention behaviour is rare. We studied 40 cases of intervention behaviour in a field study on 13 semi-wild bachelor horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) in (a) standard social situations, and (b) when new horses joined the group (i.e. introductions). Only interventions in agonistic encounters were analysed. Eight of 13 animals directed intervention behaviour toward threatening animal in agonistic encounters of group members. One stallion was particularly active. The stallions did not intervene to support former group mates or kin and interventions were not reciprocated. In introduction situations and in standard social situations, the interveners supported animals which were lower in rank, but targeted, threatening animals of comparable social rank. After introductions, stallions received more affiliative behaviour from animals they supported and thus appeared to intervene for alliance formation. In standard social situations, interveners did not receive more affiliative behaviour from animals they supported and may primarily have intervened to promote group cohesion and to reduce social disruption within the group.
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Obergfell, J. (2012). Einf lus s v on St ruktur e l ement en auf da s Li eg ev e rha l t en v on Pf e rden in Gruppenha l tung unt e r Be rücks i cht igung de s Ag g r e s s i ons v e rha l t ens. Ph.D. thesis, , Karlsruhe.
Abstract: Durch die vorliegende Studie wurde der Einfluss von Strukturelementen auf das Liege- und Aggressionsverhalten von Pferden in Gruppenhaltung untersucht. Die Strukturelemente sollten Rückzugsmöglichkeiten bieten, sowie in ihrem Bereich zur Aufhebung der Individualdistanz führen und dadurch die Fläche relativ vergrößern. Für die Versuche stellte das Haupt- und Landesgestüt Marbach drei unabhängige Pferdegruppen mit verschiedener Herdengröße zur Verfügung, die jeweils in Einraum- Innenlaufställen gehalten wurden. Die Datenerfassung fand zwischen 23 und sieben Uhr statt. Insgesamt wurden 366 Stunden Videomaterial ausgewertet. Beim Ruheverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des event-sampling- Verfahrens die Parameter Gesamtliegedauer, Dauer in Seitenlage, Dauer der Einzelphasen in
Seitenlage und Abliegehäufigkeit pro Nacht erfasst. Es wurden Versuchsphasen ohne
Strukturelemente und mit hängenden Planen als Strukturierung durchgeführt. Im ersten Stall
kamen außerdem über einander gestapelte Strohballen zum Einsatz. Diese Art der
Strukturierung stellte sich jedoch als nicht praktikabel heraus und führte im Vergleich zu den Planen zu einer signifikanten Verschlechterung der Gesamtliegedauer. In Stall 1 konnte man eine tendenzielle Verbesserung der Parameter Gesamtliegedauer und Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage durch das Anbringen von Planen sehen. In Stall 3 dagegen verschlechterte sich das Ruheverhalten in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen gegenüber den Versuchsphasen ohne Struktur. Die Werte der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage nahmen signifikant ab. In Stall 2 zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Möglicherweise ist die Wirkung der Strukturelemente auf das Liegeverhalten abhängig von der Flächengröße. Stall 1 hatte bezogen auf die Leitlinien des BMELV die größte und Stall 3 die kleinste Fläche. Bei den anderen Parametern des Liegeverhaltens gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Mit Hilfe des time-sampling-Verfahrens wurde die Anzahl gleichzeitig liegender Pferde und gleichzeitig liegender Pferde in Seitenlage bestimmt. Auch hier zeigten sich keine Unterschiede in den verschiedenen Versuchsphasen. Bei der Gegenüberstellung der Werte der Gesamtliegedauer und der Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage mit dem Alter der Pferde (Stall 1 und Stall 3) und mit dem Integrationszeitpunkt (Stall 1) konnte kein Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Beim Aggressionsverhalten wurden mit Hilfe des
event-sampling-Verfahrens in den Ställen 2 und 3 verschiedene Arten von Aggressionen
erfasst, die dann in die drei Intensitätsgrade Low-Level-, Mid-Level- und High-Level-
Aggressionen unterteilt wurden. Neben der Anzahl wurde die Dauer der verschiedenen
Aggressionen bewertet. Insgesamt konnte eine positive Wirkung der Planen auf das
Aggressionsverhalten beobachtet werden. Die Gesamtanzahl an Aggressionen nahm in beiden
Ställen tendenziell in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen ab. In Stall 3 konnte, wenn man die
Aggressionen stundenweise betrachtet, ein signifikanter Unterschied festgestellt werden.
Auch der Hinterhandschlag und die Aggressionen, welche das Ruheverhalten stören,
verringerten sich tendenziell nach dem Anbringen von Strukturelementen. In beiden Ställen
nahm die relative Häufigkeit von Mid-Level-Aggressionen nach dem Anbringen von Planen
zu. Dagegen konnte bei den High-Level-Aggressionen und in Stall 3 bei den Low-Level-
Aggressionen eine relative Abnahme beobachtet werden. Sowohl die Anzahl als auch die
Dauer der Mid-Level-Aggressionen verringerten sich in Stall 3 stundenweise betrachtet
signifikant in den Versuchsphasen mit Planen. In Stall 2 war bei den High-Level-
Aggressionen sowohl bei der Dauer als auch bei der Anzahl eine signifikante Abnahme zu
sehen. Wenn man das Aggressionsverhalten in Bezug zu der Fläche in den zwei Ställen
betrachtet, schien diese vor allem einen Einfluss auf die High-Level-Aggressionen zu
nehmen. Mit Hilfe des Rangindex der Pferde im Stall 3 wurde eine Rangordnung aufgestellt.
Zwischen dem Platz der Pferde in der Rangordnung und den Parametern des Ruheverhaltens
(Gesamtliegedauer, Gesamtdauer in Seitenlage) sowie dem Alter der Pferde konnte kein
Zusammenhang festgestellt werden. Zwischen dem Rangindex und der Gesamtanzahl an
Aggressionen bestand dagegen ein hoch signifikanter Zusammenhang. Im Rahmen dieser
Studie ist das Anbringen von Strukturelementen in Bezug auf das Aggressionsverhalten in
Einraum-Innenlaufställen von Pferden zu empfehlen. Die Wirkung auf das Liegeverhalten der
Pferde sollte in weiteren Studien untersucht werden.
[In this study the influence of structural elements on lying and aggression behavior in horses
kept in groups was exanimated. Structural elements should offer the possibility of retreat.
Furthermore, within the respective area, the individual distance should be limited, thus
increasing the overall space relatively. For the studies the “Haupt- und Landesgestüt
Marbach” provided three non-related groups of different sized horses, each kept in separate
“Einraum-Innenlaufställen”. Data collection took place between 11 pm and 7 am. Altogether,
366 hours of video material were analyzed. Using the event-sampling-method, the following
parameters within the horses´ resting behavior were determined: The total lying period, the
total lying period in lateral position, the periods of the single lying in lateral position and the
frequency of lying down. Test phases were carried out without structural elements and with
hanging canvases as structural elements. In the first stable there were also three bales of straw
piled up on top of each other. This kind of structuring emerged as impractical and in
comparison to the canvas, led to a significant deterioration to the total period of lying. After
the canvases were fixed in the first stable, a slight improvement with the parameters of total
lying period and total lying period in the lateral position could be seen. In contrast, the resting
behavior in stable 3 worsened in the test phases with the canvases in comparison to the test phases without structural elements. The values for the total lying period in the lateral position
decreased significantly. In stable 2, there were no differences in the different test phases.
Possibly the effect of the structural elements is dependent of the space. Stable 1 had the
largest space and stable 3 the least space referred to the guideline of the BMELV. The other
parameters of the lying behavior showed no significant differences in the different test phases.
The number of horses lying at the same time, and the number of horses lying at the same time
in the lateral position were detected with the aid of the time-sampling-method. There were
also no differences between the different test phases. If the values of the total lying period and
the total lying period in lateral position were compared to the age of the horses (stable 1 and
stable 3) and to the point of integration (stable 1), there was no correlation.
Different kinds of aggression were detected by the means of the event-sampling-method in
stable 2 and 3 and were subdivided into the three levels of intensity: Low-level-, mid-level
and high-level-aggressions. Both the number and the duration of the different aggressions
were evaluated. All in all a positive influence of the canvas on the aggression behavior could
be observed. In both stables, the total number of aggressions decreased in the test phases with
canvases. In stable 3 a significant difference could be detected, if the aggressions were
observed per hour. Also hind limb kicks and aggressions disturbing the resting behavior,
decreased by trend, after fixing the canvases in the stable. In both stables the relative
frequency of mid-level-aggressions increased after the canvases were mounted. In contrast
there was a relative decrease at the high-level-aggressions and in stable 3 at the low-levelaggressions.
The number and the duration of the mid-level-aggressions in stable 3 decreased,
when considered by the hour in the test phases with canvases. In stable 2 a significant
decrease in duration and number of high-level-aggressions was observed. When examining
aggression behavior in reference to space in the two stables, high-level-aggressions seemed to
be mostly influenced. In stable 3 a rank order was established with the aid of the rank index of
the horses. There was no correlation between the horses´ rank and the parameters of the
resting behavior (the total lying period, the total lying period in lateral position) and between
horses´ rank and age. In contrast, there was a high significant correlation between the rank
index and the total number of aggressions. In context to this study, structural elements in
“Einraum-Innenlaufställen” (BMELV 2009) seem to have a positive influence on the
aggression behavior and thus seem to be recommendable. The influence on the lying behavior
should be investigated in further studies.]
Keywords: Pferde, Ruheverhalten, Liegeverhalten, Aggressionsverhalten, Strukturelemente, Rangordnung [horses, rest behavior, lying behavior, aggression behavior, structural elements, rank order]
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VanDierendonck, M. C., de Vries, H., & Schilder, M. B. H. (1995). An Analysis of Dominance, Its Behavioural Parameters and Possible Determinants in a Herd of Icelandic orses in Captivity. Netherl. J. Zool., 45(3-4), 362–385.
Abstract: Th e applicability of the concept of dominance was investigated in a captive herd of  Icelandic
horses and  ponies of diff erent breeds. Eight out of  behaviours possibly related
to dominance occurred frequently enough to be investigated in detail. For these eight agonistic
behaviours the coverage, the unidirectionality in the exchange, and the degree of
transitivity (Landau`s linearity index) were calculated. Four off ensive behaviours, together
with avoidance, were suitable for further analysis with regard to dominance. Th e patterns
of asymmetries with which these behaviours were exchanged were suffi ciently similar as to
justify the application of the dominance concept and to construct a (nearly) linear dominance
hierarchy. Th e rank order of the castrated stallions was completely linear, the hierarchy
of the mares was almost completely linear. Th e results suggest that off ensive and defensive
aggressive behaviours should be treated separately and that the concept of dominance
is applicable. However, ritualized formal dominance signals between adult horses appear to
be (almost) absent. Th e rank positions of the individuals were correlated with age and residency
in the herd but not with height. Middle ranking horses tended to be more frequently
in the close vicinity of another horse than high ranking or low ranking horses. Over and
above this correlation at the individual level, it was found that pairs of horses close in rank
to each other were more often also spatially close to each other. Being in oestrus did not infl
uence the dominance relationships between mares. For castrated stallions the rank positions
were correlated with the age at which they were castrated. Th is suggests that in male
horses experience prior to neutering infl uences the behaviour afterwards.
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VanDierendonck, M. C., de Vries, H., Schilder, M.B.H. (1995). An Analysis of Dominance, Its Behavioural Parameters and Possible Determinants in a Herd of Icelandic horses in captivity. Netherl. J. Zool., 45(3-4), 362–385.
Abstract: Feral horses are social animals, which have to rely on survival strategies centered on the formation of cohesive social bonds within their bands. Many problems in the husbandry of social animals such as horses, are due to the fact that the limits of their adaptive abilities are exceeded. Evidence suggests that the fundamental social characteristics of domestic horses have remained relatively unchanged. The social structure, social strategies and social interactions were investigated (3 non-consecutive years, 24 hr per day for several weeks) in long term established groups of domestic horses (mares and geldings of all ages) and a few small introduced groups, kept in (semi)natural environments. The general aim was to investigate the social needs of domestic horses. The social life of domestic horses was characterised by long lasting bonds with preferred partners which were established and maintained by allogrooming, play, proximity and dominance behaviours. Bonding partners were mainly found within the same sex-age group, but adult geldings also bonded with sub-adult mares and geldings. Adult mares were clustered in a group, while the other animals formed a second group. Among the adult mares, subgroups according to reproductive state were formed. Individuals regulated their social network by interfering with interactions between other members of the herd, which in itself is complex. An intervention is a behavioural action of one animal that actively interferes with an ongoing interaction between a dyad with the apparent aim of altering that interaction. This was verified by post-hoc analyses of disturbed and undisturbed interactions. Interventions in allogrooming or play were performed significantly more often when at least one member of the initial dyad was a preferred partner of, or familiar to (within the small introduced bands) the intervener. The stronger the preferred association in allogrooming between the intervener and member(s) of the initial dyad, the higher the probability the intervener would displace one initial member and continue allogrooming with the other. Just five behaviours were extracted which reliably reflected the dominance relations among horses. Aggression with the hind quarters was used both offensively and defensively and therefore not suitable as a reliable parameter. Individual dominance relationships were related to social experience. The implications of these findings for horse husbandry were assessed. It is argued that the execution of affiliative behaviours may be rewarding in itself, and therefore always will be a highly motivated behaviour. It is shown that social positive physical interactions (allogrooming, play) with other horses is an ethological need and therefore indispensable in modern husbandry systems. Ethological needs are so important for the animal that husbandry systems that lack the possibilities to execute such behaviours will cause chronic stress. It is concluded that all horses need physical social contact, and that horses, which lack appropriate social learning experiences during ontogeny, may be hampered in their social functioning later in life. Solutions for problems, including dominance problems, in individual social housing and group housing are presented.
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Vervaecke, H., Vries, H. D., & Elsacker, L. V. (1999). An Experimental Evaluation Of The Consistency Of Competitive Ability And Agonistic Dominance In Different Social Contexts In Captive Bonobos. Behaviour, 136(4), 423–442.
Abstract: Bonobos have been described as a relatively egalitarian and female dominant species. The exact nature and quality of their dominance relationships and the existence of female dominance are current topics of dispute. We investigated the consistency across social contexts, the stability in time, and the degree of expression of the competitive feeding ability and agonistic dominance in a captive group of bonobos. First, we examined whether the competitive feeding ranks and agonistic ranks differed in different dyadic contexts, triadic contexts and the whole group context. For some pairs of animals the dominance relationships with respect to competitive feeding altered with different group compositions. The agonistic dominance relationships changed accordingly. The competitive feeding ranks and agonistic ranks in the experiments correlated strongly with each other. The alpha position was occupied by a female, but not all females outranked all males. We suggest that females can profit from each others presence to gain inter-sexual dominance. Second, although the agonistic rank order in the whole group remained the same over at least five years, some dyadic competitive feeding ranks changed over time, resulting in a stronger female intersexual dominance. Third, the degree of expression of the behaviors used to quantify dyadic competitive and agonistic dominance was not high, in line with the popular 'egalitarian' epithet. Notwithstanding its low consistency across contexts, the dominance hierarchy in the whole group has a strong predictive value for other social relationships such as grooming. Given this strong effect of rank on other behaviours and given the strong dependency of rank on social context, the choice of the right party members may be a crucial factor in the fission-fusion processes of free-ranging bonobos.
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