Abstract: Like many other herbivores, in a natural environment equids feed on rather evenly distributed resources. However, the vegetation in their vast habitats constantly changes. If food is plentiful only little competition occurs over food, and in non-competitive situations domestic horses tend to return to the same feeding site until it is overgrazed. In contrast, they compete over limited food for which the social status of the individuals appears to be important. Especially in ruminants several studies have proved an influence of social organisations, rank, sex and the depletion of feeding sites on the feeding behaviour of individuals. However, it is not yet understood whether and how social aspects affect horses“ feeding decisions. Curiosity about the influence of social rank on the horses” feeding decisions between two, equally with high-quality surplus food-filled buckets placed in different social feeding conditions, led us to create the test below. The observer horses were alternately tested with a dominant and a subordinate demonstrator placed in one of the three different positions. We conclude that domestic horses use social cognition and strategic decision making in order to decide where to feed in a social feeding situation. When possible they tend to return to the same, continuously supplied feeding site and switch to an “avoidance tendency” in the presence of dominant horses or when another horse is already feeding there. Thus, the social rank and the position of conspecifics affect the feeding strategy of horses.

Abstract: Mares quickly form a bond with their foals, probably within the first hour. They lick the foal usually beginning at the tail end, then the head and later the body of the foal. Licking behavior disappears within the first hours in most mares. Once the bond is formed the mare will let no other foal nurse and stays within a meter of the foal most of the time during the first week. The foal follows her when awake, but when he sleeps she stands over him. As the foal matures the distance the mare maintains from the foals get longer and she may graze as he sleeps. The bond of the mother to the foal gradually weakens as revealed by her response to separation from the foal. Weaning usually takes place shortly before the birth of the next foal. Some mares will attempt to steal foals and this can lead to injury of either the mares or the foal. Because of the strong and exclusive bond of most mares to their foal, foal rejection is especially abnormal. It occurs in some breeds more frequently than others, indicating a heritable component. Arabian mares reject 5% of their foals and other breeds reject less than 2%. There are three types of foal rejection- simple fear of the foal that can be quickly solved by holding the mare so the foal can suckle. The mare learns that nursing is pleasurable. This process usually takes only a few hours of holding the mare because foals suckle so frequently- about four times an hours. The second form of foal rejection is avoidance of tactile stimulation of the inguinal fold. When the foal attempts to suckle he usually strikes that skin fold and causes the mare to cow kick and move away. Desensitization to stimulation of the inguinal fold can solve this problem in a few hours. Treatment is more complex and longer for mares that are aggressive to the foal even when it does not touch them. This type of foal rejection can be treated with drugs that inhibit dopamine such as acepromazine-not the alpha adrenergic agent xylazine. Dopamine inhibits the pituitary hormone prolactin, a putative maternal hormone, which increases milk production. Blocking dopamine will increase prolactin. The mare should always have visual contact with the foal, but be restrained so she can not bite or kick the foal. A pole across the stall confining the mare against a wall is best. Maternal behavior can be induced in non-pregnant mares using injections of estrogen, progesterone, and the dopamine inhibitor sulpiride. Once lactation begins cervical stimulation can be used to elicit maternal behavior toward the next foal the mare sees.

Abstract: Mirror neurons are a distinct class of neurons that transform specific sensory information into a motor format. Mirror neurons have been originally discovered in the premotor and parietal cortex of the monkey. Subsequent neurophysiological (TMS, EEG, MEG) and brain imaging studies have shown that a mirror mechanism is also present in humans. According to its anatomical locations, mirror mechanism plays a role in action and intention understanding, imitation, speech, and emotion feeling.

Abstract: Most animals seem to have difficulties in using gaze cues to find hidden food in object-choice tasks. For instance, chimpanzees usually fail in these tests, even though they are capable of following other's gaze geometrically behind barriers. Similar to chimpanzees, common ravens are skilled in tracking other's gaze but fail in object-choice tasks. We here explored whether procedural modifications, which had been used successfully in chimpanzees, would also yield positive results in ravens. In our modifications (a) the experimenter approached the cup while gazing at it, (b) the gaze cue was accompanied by a sound and (c) the experimenter could actually see the food while giving the gaze cue. Two out of seven birds performed above chance level in some of these conditions. However, we ascribe this improvement to the individuals' learning ability rather than to an understanding of the communicative nature of the task. This interpretation is further supported by results of a follow-up experiment suggesting that ravens may not rely on conspecifics' gaze cues for finding food caches in a natural foraging context. In sum, our results suggest that ravens may not transfer their gaze follow abilities to foraging situations involving hidden food.

Abstract: Objective: In the context of the ongoing discussion about keeping horses in individual stable boxes vs. in herds the lack of relaxation of the horse as a flight animal is an argument often put forward against individual housing. The long-term objective of our investigations is to determine the sleep phases in various housing systems in order to find a substantiated answer to that issue. For that purpose, the sleep waves measured by EEG have to be defined beforehand and allocated to the individual stages of sleep. The experiments described here are intended to support this effort. The objective is to establish a method which by means of a portable polysomnograph allows to capture the sleeping behaviour of horses for the purpose of defining the individual stages of sleep. It was investigated which stages of sleep horses undergo, and to what extent they may be comparable to those of humans.
Animals/materials/methods: Given the high technical effort involved, somnographic examination of large animals has so far been difficult and mostly required the animals to be sedated. Meanwhile, however, instruments such as the Somnoscreen by Somnomedics have become available. This is a completely portable polysomnograph with up to 28 channels and wireless online signal transmission and synchronous video transmission to a PC.
Using this instrument, the sleep profile of 5 Icelandic ponies and 10 horses (different race) aged 5-10 years was recorded and evaluated for 4 or 5 nights per horse. The following parameters were assessed: EEG (electroencephalogram), EOG (electrooculogram), EMG (electromyogram), ECG (electrocardiogram), thoracic and abdominal breathing motions as well as identification of the body posture. Synchronous video recordings were made. EEG recordings were obtained through gold-coated disk electrodes with long flexible cables, applied and secured to the scalp.
Results: As with humans, various stages of sleep can also be defined for horses using the above methods of recording. The waking condition is characterised by alpha waves, which just like in humans are within a range of 8-12 Hz. Typical REM phases as in humans were also detected, although not only when stretched completely on their side, as has hitherto always been described, but also when lying on their chest. Phases of deep sleep (stage 4) can also be measured, with the animals mostly in a standing position. The multi-stage human sleeping pattern, which is made up of 4-6 repeat phases of sleep (waking stage eyes open – waking stage eyes closed – REM phase – stage 1 – stage 2 – stage 3 – stage 4 – return to REM phase etc.) was found to be similar in horses in individual sequences. However, the sleep phases are shorter and more frequently interrupted by waking phases.
Conclusions: Horses are flight animals, which is why they have to be “on eye” in every situation so as to be able to flee in the face of danger. In a natural herd lying positions are only assumed if one or more members watch over the herd. In some publications the REM phase is treated as equivalent to the deep sleep phase. Although the REM phase is a phase of total muscle relaxation it is at the same time the dream phase and due to the high frequencies and the low amplitudes in the EOG resembles Stage I. This means that the sleeping horse can be awakened very quickly from this REM phase so as to be able to react to any dangerous situation. It therefore makes sense for the horses to assume a lying position during REM phases as the muscles are relaxed, yet a waking condition can be reached very quickly. A standing position seems to be preferred during deep sleep phases, where waking takes rather long, so that at least the position will not have to be changed. Whether the sleeping behaviour changes depending on age and race has yet to be investigated.