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Hirata, S. (2007). A note on the responses of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to live self-images on television monitors. Behav. Process., 75(1), 85–90.
Abstract: The majority of studies on self-recognition in animals have been conducted using a mirror as the test device; little is known, however, about the responses of non-human primates toward their own images in media other than mirrors. This study provides preliminary data on the reactions of 10 chimpanzees to live self-images projected on two television monitors, each connected to a different video camera. Chimpanzees could see live images of their own faces, which were approximately life-sized, on one monitor. On the other monitor, they could see live images of their whole body, which were approximately one-fifth life-size, viewed diagonally from behind. In addition, several objects were introduced into the test situation. Out of 10 chimpanzees tested, 2 individuals performed self-exploratory behaviors while watching their own images on the monitors. One of these two chimpanzees successively picked up two of the provided objects in front of a monitor, and watched the images of these objects on the monitor. The results indicate that these chimpanzees were able to immediately recognize live images of themselves or objects on the monitors, even though several features of these images differed from those of their previous experience with mirrors.
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Hirsch, B. T. (2007). Costs and benefits of within-group spatial position: a feeding competition model. Q Rev Biol, 82(1), 9–27.
Abstract: An animal's within-group spatial position has several important fitness consequences. Risk of predation, time spent engaging in antipredatory behavior and feeding competition can all vary with respect to spatial position. Previous research has found evidence that feeding rates are higher at the group edge in many species, but these studies have not represented the entire breadth of dietary diversity and ecological situations faced by many animals. In particular the presence of concentrated, defendable food patches can lead to increased feeding rates by dominants in the center of the group that are able to monopolize or defend these areas. To fully understand the tradeoffs of within-group spatial position in relation to a variety of factors, it is important to be able to predict where individuals should preferably position themselves in relation to feeding rates and food competition. A qualitative model is presented here to predict how food depletion time, abundance of food patches within a group, and the presence of prior knowledge of feeding sites affect the payoffs of different within-group spatial positions for dominant and subordinate animals. In general, when feeding on small abundant food items, individuals at the front edge of the group should have higher foraging success. When feeding on slowly depleted, rare food items, dominants will often have the highest feeding rates in the center of the group. Between these two extreme points of a continuum, an individual's optimal spatial position is predicted to be influenced by an additional combination of factors, such as group size, group spread, satiation rates, and the presence of producer-scrounger tactics.
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Holekamp, K. E., Sakai, S. T., & Lundrigan, B. L. (2007). Social intelligence in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta). Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 362(1480), 523–538.
Abstract: If the large brains and great intelligence characteristic of primates were favoured by selection pressures associated with life in complex societies, then cognitive abilities and nervous systems with primate-like attributes should have evolved convergently in non-primate mammals living in large, elaborate societies in which social dexterity enhances individual fitness. The societies of spotted hyenas are remarkably like those of cercopithecine primates with respect to size, structure and patterns of competition and cooperation. These similarities set an ideal stage for comparative analysis of social intelligence and nervous system organization. As in cercopithecine primates, spotted hyenas use multiple sensory modalities to recognize their kin and other conspecifics as individuals, they recognize third-party kin and rank relationships among their clan mates, and they use this knowledge adaptively during social decision making. However, hyenas appear to rely more intensively than primates on social facilitation and simple rules of thumb in social decision making. No evidence to date suggests that hyenas are capable of true imitation. Finally, it appears that the gross anatomy of the brain in spotted hyenas might resemble that in primates with respect to expansion of frontal cortex, presumed to be involved in the mediation of social behaviour.
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Hopkins, W. D., Taglialatela, J. P., & Leavens, D. A. (2007). Chimpanzees differentially produce novel vocalizations to capture the attention of a human. Anim. Behav., 73(2), 281–286.
Abstract: Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, produce numerous species-atypical signals when raised in captivity. We examined contextual elements of the use of two of these vocal signals, the `raspberry' and the extended grunt. Our results demonstrate that these vocalizations are not elicited by the presence of food, but instead function as attention-getting signals. These findings reveal a heretofore underappreciated category of animal signals: attention-getting sounds produced in novel environmental circumstances. The invention and use of species-atypical signals, considered in relation to group differences in signalling repertoires in apes in their natural habitats, may index a generative capacity in these hominoid species without obvious corollary in other primate species.
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Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2007). Learning from others' mistakes limits on understanding a trap-tube task by young chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). J Comp Psychol, 121(1), 12–21.
Abstract: A trap-tube task was used to determine whether chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens) who observed a model's errors and successes could master the task in fewer trials than those who saw only successes. Two- to 7-year-old chimpanzees and 3- to 4-year-old children did not benefit from observing errors and found the task difficult. Two of the 6 chimpanzees developed a successful anticipatory strategy but showed no evidence of representing the core causal relations involved in trapping. Three- to 4-year-old children showed a similar limitation and tended to copy the actions of the demonstrator, irrespective of their causal relevance. Five- to 6-year-old children were able to master the task but did not appear to be influenced by social learning or benefit from observing errors.
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Hostetter, A. B., Russell, J. L., Freeman, H., & Hopkins, W. D. (2007). Now you see me, now you don't: evidence that chimpanzees understand the role of the eyes in attention. Anim. Cogn., 10(1), 55–62.
Abstract: Chimpanzees appear to understand something about the attentional states of others; in the present experiment, we investigated whether they understand that the attentional state of a human is based on eye gaze. In all, 116 adult chimpanzees were offered food by an experimenter who engaged in one of the four experimental manipulations: eyes closed, eyes open, hand over eyes, and hand over mouth. The communicative behavior of the chimpanzees was observed. More visible behaviors were produced when the experimenter's eyes were visible than when the experimenter's eyes were not visible. More vocalizations were produced when the experimenter's eyes were closed than when they were open, but there were no differences in other attention getting behaviors. There was no effect of age or rearing history. The results suggest that chimpanzees use the presence of the eyes as a cue that their visual gestures will be effective.
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Hothersall, B., & Nicol, C. (2007). Equine learning behaviour: accounting for ecological constraints and relationships with humans in experimental design. Behav. Process., 76(1), 45–48.
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Houpt, K. A. (2007). Imprinting training and conditioned taste aversion. Behav. Process., 76, 14–16.
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Hvorecny, L. M., Grudowski, J. L., Blakeslee, C. J., Simmons, T. L., Roy, P. R., Brooks, J. A., et al. (2007). Octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides) and cuttlefishes (Sepia pharaonis, S. officinalis) can conditionally discriminate. Anim. Cogn., .
Abstract: In complex navigation using landmarks, an animal must discriminate between potential cues and show context (condition) sensitivity. Such conditional discrimination is considered a form of complex learning and has been associated primarily with vertebrates. We tested the hypothesis that octopuses and cuttlefish are capable of conditional discrimination. Subjects were trained in two maze configurations (the conditions) in which they were required to select one of two particular escape routes within each maze (the discrimination). Conditional discrimination could be demonstrated by selecting the correct escape route in each maze. Six of ten mud-flat octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides), 6 of 13 pharaoh cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis), and one of four common cuttlefish (S. officinalis) demonstrated conditional discrimination by successfully solving both mazes. These experiments demonstrate that cephalopods are capable of conditional discrimination and extend the limits of invertebrate complex learning.
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Hübener, E. (2007). Pferdgerechte Hilfen und der Zeitgeber dafür (Vol. 1/2007). D-86938 Schondorf: Wu Wei Verlag.
Abstract: Harmonie zwischen Mensch und Pferd und Verständnis des Reiters für körperliche Beschaffenheit und Verhaltensweise des Pferdes fordern wahre Hippologen seit Jahrhunderten. Dauernde intensive Aufmerksamkeit ermöglicht dem Pferd, kaum sichtbare Signale des Leittiers oder des Reiters (!) wahrzunehmen und blitzschnell zu befolgen. Wir müssen mit dem Pferd also nicht umgehen, als sei es unwillig oder taub.
Wenn der Reiter in perfekter Balance sitzt, möchte sein Schenkel während des Vorsetzens des gleichseitigen Pferde-Hinterbeins “selbsttätig” an den wegschwingenden Pferderumpf fallen. Dies ist der einzige Moment, in dem das Pferd eine vorwärtstreibende, seitwärtstreibende oder verhaltende Einwirkung des Reiters unmittelbar befolgen kann. Video-Aufnahmen bestätigen, was wir bereits vor über hundert Jahren wußten, was dann in unserer “Sportorganisation” aber irgendwie in Vergessenheit geriet. Natürlich dürfen wir den Schenkel nicht ständig ans Pferd fallen lassen, weil das Pferd das dann nicht mehr als Signal wertet. Wie die Schenkeleinwirkung 'an-' und 'abstellbar' ist, wird erläutert.
Für das reiterliche Niveau hierzulande ist von entscheidender Bedeutung, daß junge Reiter an der Basis mit dem “selbsttätigen Schenkel” vertraut gemacht werden, sobald sie halbwegs sattelfest geworden sind. Jugendliche erlernen ihn spielend und verlieren ihn nie mehr, Erwachsene haben es da mangels ausreichender Beweglichkeit ihres Beckenringes wesentlich schwerer. Angesichts des höchst unzureichenden Angebotes guten Reitunterrichts könnte ein Lehr-Video zu diesem Thema überaus nützlich sein. Sponsoren dafür werden hier gesucht!
Für Reiter, die den Balancesitz beherrschen und somit fühlen, wie ihre Schenkel an den wegschwingenden Pferderumpf fallen, ist Reiten fortan im Wesentlichen Selbstdisziplin.
Daß wir wichtigste Elemente der Reitkunst verlieren können, wenn wir uns nicht mehr wissenschaftlich mit ihrem Inhalt auseinandersetzen, ist für den Autor Anlaß, sich in diesem Aufsatz erneut für interdisziplinäre universitäre Forschung zur Reitlehre und für die Unterstützung solcher Projekte durch die Spitzenorganisation einzusetzen.
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