Topál, J., & Csányi, V. (1999). Interactive learning in the paradise fish (Macropodus opercularis): an ethological interpretation of the second-order conditioning paradigm. Anim. Cogn., 2(4), 197–206.
Abstract: This study was aimed at the examination of 'mental construction' in paradise fish by interactive learning, which is suggested as an alternative hypothesis for backward or second-order conditioning. Avoidance of goldfish was established in paradise fish by presenting a harmless goldfish (a novel stimulus) after an aversive event (mild electric shocks) in the dark compartment of a shuttle tank. It was found that this avoidance depended on context pre-exposure. Experiment 1 was designed to study the effect of mild shocks on shuttling activity in a familiar context. Experiment 2 aimed at establishing fear-conditioning to the goldfish in a higher-order conditioning paradigm. In the course of training, unpaired stimuli were presented in the dark compartment of the shuttle tank in such a manner that the presentation of mild shocks (20 mA) preceded the encounter with a harmless fish (goldfish). Experiment 3 demonstrated the role of context pre-exposure in interactive learning. Results indicate that (1) while 60 mA shocks resulted in avoidance of the dark compartment, the 20 mA mild shocks affected exploratory behaviour; (2) after pre-exposure to the training environment, paradise fish avoided the dark compartment containing goldfish provided that subjects had previously encountered mild, explorative shocks there; (3) this conditioned fear, a 'mental construction' of a potential danger, was proved to be transferable to another context and was consequently aimed specifically at the goldfish, a living being, rather than the training context; (4) the pre-exposure to the shuttle tank was an important part of this training procedure, that is, only subjects habituated to the shuttle tank avoided the goldfish. Results are discussed in the framework of the Interactive Learning Hypothesis, which has been developed as an ethological approach to a higher-order conditioning paradigm.
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Wauters, A. M., Richard-Yris, M. - A., Richard, J. P., & Foraste M. (1999). Internal and external factors modulate food-calling in domestic hens. Anim. Cogn., 2(1), 1–10.
Abstract: Two series of experiments investigated factors affecting utterance of food calls in the domestic hen, Gallus domesticus. The first series of experiments tested the effect of food preference and the hen’s internal state on the utterance of food calls. Different food types were presented first singly and then in a choice test to 20 hens, first when hens were laying, and then when they were maternal. The second series of experiments tested the effect of hunger level on the utterance of food calls in laying hens, and maternal hens with or without chicks. These two series of experiments showed that laying hens and maternal hens showed a similar marked preference for certain types of food, but laying hens very rarely emitted food calls, in contrast to maternal hens. This shows the effect of the bird’s psychophysiological state on her tendency to emit food calls. The more a maternal hen preferred a food type, the more food calls she emitted. This was observed from the beginning of a test in single-food tests as well as in choice tests. Hunger level positively affected food-call production under certain feeding conditions in maternal hens, but not in laying hens. When maternal hens were tested in the absence of their chicks, utterance of food calls was more sustained than in the presence of chicks.
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Westergaard, G. C. (1999). Structural analysis of tool-use by tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Anim. Cogn., 2(3), 141–145.
Abstract: Using Matsuzawa's hierarchical system of classification, I compared tool-use patterns of tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) to those of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). The results indicated that wild C. apella exhibit fewer and less complex tool-use patterns than do captive C. apella and wild and captive P. troglodytes. Although most patterns of tool-use observed among P. troglodytes occur in captive C. apella, there are some notable exceptions, including tool-use in communicative contexts and the use ¶of three-tool combinations. I conclude that C. apella are unique among monkeys in their demonstrated propensities for higher-order combinatorial behavior and are likely capable of using symbolic combinations, although not at the level of complexity that has been demonstrated in ¶P. troglodytes.
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Wiltschko, W., Balda, R. P., Jahnel, M., & Wiltschko, R. (1999). Sun compass orientation in seed-caching corvids: its role in spatial memory. Anim. Cogn., 2(4), 215–221.
Abstract: The role of sun compass orientation in spatial memory of Clark's nutcrackers, Nucifraga columbiana, and pinyon jays, Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus, was studied in a series of cache recovery experiments. Birds were tested in an octagonal outdoor aviary with sand-filled cups inserted in the floor. For caching, only 12 such cups in a 90° sector were available, while for recovery 4-7 days later all 48 cups in the entire aviary were open. In control tests, the birds concentrated their search activity in the sector where they had cached. When their internal clock was shifted 6 h between caching and recovery, pinyon jays shifted their search activity to the 90° adjacent sector, as predicted if the sun compass was used. Clark's nutcrackers did not respond to the first clock-shift; however, they, too, shifted their search activity after a second clock-shift back to normal. This suggests that the sun compass is a component of spatial memory in both species. Clark's nutcrackers, however, seem to rely on their sun compass to a lesser degree than pinyon jays or the previously studied scrub jays. A comparison of the findings indicates that the role of the sun in spatial memory might reflect differences in habitat and ecology of the three corvid species.
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Theall, L. A., & Povinelli, D. J. (1999). Do chimpanzees tailor their gestural signals to fit the attentional states of others? Anim. Cogn., 2(4), 207–214.
Abstract: The use of vocalizations and tactile gestures by seven juvenile chimpanzees was experimentally investigated. The subjects interacted with an experimenter who typically handed them food rewards. In some trials, however, the experimenter waited 20 s before doing so. In these trials the experimenter's eyes were either open or closed, or the experimenter was either looking away from the subject or looking directly at him/her inquisitively with head movements. Although the chimpanzees produced at least one of the non-visual gestures mentioned (touching/tapping the experimenter or vocalizing) in 72% of all experimental trials, these actions and vocalizations were deployed without regard to the attentional state of their potential recipient, despite evidence that the subjects noticed the postures that defined the experimenter's attentional state. The results are discussed in the context of the distinction between the evolution of an understanding of seeing/attention as an internal mental state versus an understanding of behavioral postures alone.
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Spinozzi, G., Natale, F., Langer, J., & Brakke, K. E. (1999). Spontaneous class grouping behavior by bonobos (Pan paniscus) and common chimpanzees (P. troglodytes). Anim. Cogn., 2(3), 157–170.
Abstract: Two experiments investigated spontaneous class grouping behavior by human-enculturated and language-reared bonobos (Pan paniscus) and common chimpanzees (P. troglodytes). In experiment 1, three chimpanzees ranging in age from 6 to 18 years were presented with six objects. The objects embodied three conditions: additive, multiplicative and disjoint classes. All chimpanzees spontaneously produced single- and two-category classifying. In experiment 2, six chimpanzees ranging in age from 6 to 21 years were presented with 12 objects in the same class conditions. Chimpanzees mainly produced single-category classifying. Their two-category classifying was more rudimentary than that found in experiment 1. Chimpanzees did not produce any three-category classifying which would be necessary to construct the hierarchies that humans begin to construct during early childhood.
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Werner, C. W., & Rehkämper, G. (1999). Discrimination of multidimensional geometrical figures by chickens: categorization and pattern-learning. Anim. Cogn., 2(1), 27–40.
Abstract: Japanese bantam hens were trained to discriminate between geometrical figures varying along four integral dimensions. Only one dimension predicted food: selections of sharp-cornered figures were reinforced, while selections of rounded figures were not. In experiment 1, hens were subsequently trained to discriminate between nine figure pairs in a simultaneous discrimination task. Because single pairs contained multiple redundant cues, whereas the relevant dimension was obvious only across stimulus pairs, the results revealed effects of both generalization and reversal learning. Accordingly, learning speed was enhanced for later discriminations. Experiment 2 tested the hens“ transfer performance to unknown pairs, following experience of 9 or 18 figure pairs. Four of seven hens showed reliable transfer after experience with 9 figures, but only three showed transfer after experience with 18 figures, indicating lower transfer with higher number of stimulus pairs learned. In experiment 3, hens were trained to discriminate 27 figure pairs. Discrimination ratios further decreased and the groups of pairs differed significantly in their ratios of discrimination. Individual hens” pecking behaviour was analysed in relation to each dimension of single figures and in relation to relative differences in the levels of dimensions between paired figures. Hens were shown to be oriented towards irrelevant information and more towards relational and configurational than elemental and dimensional aspects. The results are discussed in the biological context of individual recognition in chickens" dominance hierarchies, in which we suppose that chickens identify individual flock mates by representation of their visual pattern rather than by single characteristics.
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Langen, T. A. (1999). How western scrub-jays (Aphelocoma californica) select a nut: effects of the number of options, variation in nut size, and social competition among foragers. Anim. Cogn., 2(4), 223–233.
Abstract: Western scrub-jays (Aphelocoma californica) often visually assess and handle several whole (unshelled) peanuts before selecting one to transport and cache; this behavior is a search for a preferred heavy nut. I repeatedly video-taped individually identifiable jays as they landed on a feeding platform and chose from presentations of peanuts that varied in the number of items or in the distribution of sizes. I examined how differences among these presentations and a bird's social status affected the amount of assessment and the economic consequences of choice. I also examined the specific patterns of handling peanuts, called sampling, to quantify the degree to which sampling sequences were typified by repeated comparisons among sampled peanuts (retrospective sampling), or sequential assessment and rejection of peanuts (prospective sampling). Peanut assessment was more extensive and prospective when there were many options from which to choose than when there were few. Peanut assessment was more extensive and retrospective when options were similar in size than when they varied. Scrub-jays were more likely to make repeated comparisons immediately before selecting a peanut than elsewhere in a sampling sequence. Subordinate scrub-jays, who were at the greatest risk of pre-emption by competitors, assessed peanuts less extensively and were more prospective in their sampling than dominants. Unless peanuts were very similar in size, jays were more accurate at selecting a high-quality peanut and achieved a higher rate of food storage than if they had not assessed. These results show that scrub-jays can adaptively modify how they search to improve their rate of food storage, and also suggest some of the specific search tactics used by jays when assessing peanuts.
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Weed M.R., Taffe M.A., Polis I., Roberts A.C., Robbins T.W., Koob G.F., et al. (1999). Performance norms for a rhesus monkey neuropsychological testing battery: acquisition and long-term performance. Cognitive Brain Research, 8, 185–201.
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Griffiths D., Dickinson A., & Clayton N. (1999). Episodic memory: what can animals remember about their past? Trends. Cognit. Sci., 3, 74–80.
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