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Marinier, S. L., & Alexander, A. J. (1994). The use of a maze in testing learning and memory in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 39(2), 177–182.
Abstract: Two mazes were used to test the learning ability and memory of horses, and changes in these abilities. Testing was done on four occasions. On Occasion 1, the horses were run through Maze A until they had reached the criterion of three consecutive correct runs. A week later (Occasion 2), they were retested in Maze A to the same criterion as a measure of memory. On Occasion 3,2 months later, the horses were run through Mazes A and B until they reached the criterion. Occasion 4 took place 1 week later when they were run through Mazes A and B. An estimation of changes in ability to learn came from a comparison of results from Occasions 1 and 3. Similarly, changes in ability to remember came from a comparison of results from Occasions 2 and 4. Nine horses with a variable amount of riding training were the subjects. All horses were able to learn the maze, but the ability varied among horses. There was no obvious correlation between quality of handling of the horses and learning ability. Once the horses had learned the maze, they remembered it perfectly on subsequent occasions. There were changes in the memory and learning ability of the horses, but no clear explanation for this could be found.
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Gonyou, H. W. (1994). Why the study of animal behavior is associated with the animal welfare issue. J. Anim Sci., 72(8), 2171–2177.
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Minton, J. E. (1994). Function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system in models of acute stress in domestic farm animals. J. Anim Sci., 72(7), 1891–1898.
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Walter, G., & Reisner, A. (1994). Student opinion formation on animal agriculture issues. J. Anim Sci., 72(6), 1654–1658.
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Sappington, B. F., & Goldman, L. (1994). Discrimination learning and concept formation in the Arabian horse. J. Anim Sci., 72(12), 3080–3087.
Abstract: Discrimination learning and concept formation abilities were investigated in four mature Arabian horses. A series of two-choice discrimination problems were presented on stimulus panels that could open to allow access to food bowls. Selection of the correct stimulus resulted in food reinforcement, and an incorrect choice was not rewarded. The positions of the correct and incorrect stimuli were varied randomly during each test session, and the criterion for learning each problem was 85% correct for two consecutive sessions of 30 or 40 trials. Testing progressed through six discrimination problems. The first four were simple pattern discriminations, but the last two incorporated several different triangles as correct stimuli and thus involved the concept of triangularity. Two of the subjects successfully completed only simple pattern discriminations, one showed evidence of learning in the first concept problem, and one completed all six tests, including the two concept formation problems. The results demonstrate complex pattern discrimination ability in horses, and suggest that they may also have the ability to form and use concepts in problem solving.
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Vlajkoviç, S., Nikoliç, V., Nikoliç, A., Milanoviç, S. žA., & Jankoviç, B. D. (1994). Asymmetrical Modulation of Immune Reactivity in Left- and Right-Biased Rats After Ipsilateral Ablation of the Prefrontal, Parietal and Occipital Brain Neocortex. International Journal of Neuroscience, 78(1-2), 123–134.
Abstract: We report here on the lateralized brain immunomodulation in male Wistar rats, a phenomenon related to the rotational bias of animal and the site of cortical lesion. Rats assigned to left- and right-rotators in a cylindrical Plexiglass rotometer were subjected to the ablation of the ipsilateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), parietal cortex (PC) and occipital cortex (OC) and sensitized with bovine serum albumin (BSA) in complete Freund's adjuvant. Intact and sham-lesioned left-biased animals demonstrated increased Arthus and delayed hypersensitivity skin reactions and antibody production to BSA in comparison with corresponding right-biased animals. PFC ablation decreased humoral and cellular immune responses to BSA in left- but increased in right-biased rats. Lesioning of PC decreased humoral immune reactions in left- but increased in right-rotating animals. OC ablation failed to produce immunological abnormalities, These results suggest that immunopotentiation is associated with the left neocortex, and immunosuppression with the right neocortex. The prefrontal cortex appears to be particularly associated with immune reactions.
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Manson, J. H. (1994). Male aggression: a cost of female mate choice in Cayo Santiago rhesus macaques. Anim. Behav., 48, 473–475.
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Boyd, L., & Houpt, K. A. (1994). Przewalski's Horse. The History and Biology of an Endangered Species. SUNY Press.
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Bauer, I. E., McMorrow, J. Y.,, & D. W. (1994). The Historic Ranges of Three Equid Species in North-East Africa: A Quantitative Comparison of Environmental Tolerances. J Biogeogr, 21(2), 169–182.
Abstract: The historic ranges of three equid species native to north-east Africa are analysed with respect to annual rainfall, several temperature parameters and a satellite-derived multispectral index of primary productivity. Equus africanus Fitzinger, Equus grevyi Oustalet and Equus burchelli Gray used to largely replace each other, geographically, with narrow zones of range overlap occurring between E. africanus and E. grevyi in the Awash valley, and between E. grevyi and E. burchelli in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya. The three species are shown to succeed each other along an environmental gradient. The position of each species on this gradient and the resulting location and extent of its range are discussed. Competitive exclusion, specific adaptations and historic events are likely determinants of equid distribution. In the area of sympatry between E. grevyi and E. burchelli, mixed habitat characters as well as environmental fluctuations seem to prevent either species from excluding the other. Different social organizations of E. grevyi and E. burchelli and the resulting migratory patterns may be adaptations to the environment in their allopatric ranges; in their sympatric range they could alleviate competition.
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Heyes, C. M. (1994). Social learning in animals: categories and mechanisms. Biol. Rev., 69(2), 207–231.
Abstract: There has been relatively little research on the psychological mechanisms of social learning. This may be due, in part, to the practice of distinguishing categories of social learning in relation to ill-defined mechanisms (Davis, 1973; Galef, 1988). This practice both makes it difficult to identify empirically examples of different types of social learning, and gives the false impression that the mechanisms responsible for social learning are clearly understood. It has been proposed that social learning phenomena be subsumed within the categorization scheme currently used by investigators of asocial learning. This scheme distinguishes categories of learning according to observable conditions, namely, the type of experience that gives rise to a change in an animal (single stimulus vs. stimulus-stimulus relationship vs. response-reinforcer relationship), and the type of behaviour in which this change is detected (response evocation vs. learnability) (Rescorla, 1988). Specifically, three alignments have been proposed: (i) stimulus enhancement with single stimulus learning, (ii) observational conditioning with stimulus-stimulus learning, or Pavlovian conditioning, and (iii) observational learning with response-reinforcer learning, or instrumental conditioning. If, as the proposed alignments suggest, the conditions of social and asocial learning are the same, there is some reason to believe that the mechanisms underlying the two sets of phenomena are also the same. This is so if one makes the relatively uncontroversial assumption that phenomena which occur under similar conditions tend to be controlled by similar mechanisms. However, the proposed alignments are intended to be a set of hypotheses, rather than conclusions, about the mechanisms of social learning; as a basis for further research in which animal learning theory is applied to social learning. A concerted attempt to apply animal learning theory to social learning, to find out whether the same mechanisms are responsible for social and asocial learning, could lead both to refinements of the general theory, and to a better understanding of the mechanisms of social learning. There are precedents for these positive developments in research applying animal learning theory to food aversion learning (e.g. Domjan, 1983; Rozin & Schull, 1988) and imprinting (e.g. Bolhuis, de Vox & Kruit, 1990; Hollis, ten Cate & Bateson, 1991). Like social learning, these phenomena almost certainly play distinctive roles in the antogeny of adaptive behaviour, and they are customarily regarded as 'special kinds' of learning (Shettleworth, 1993).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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