Penzhorn, B. L. (1984). A Long-term Study of Social Organisation and Behaviour of Cape Mountain Zebras Equus zebra zebra. Z. Tierpsychol., 64(2), 97–146.
Abstract: Abstract and Summary 1. The social structure of Cape mountain zebras consists of breeding herds and bachelor groups. The breeding herds, which comprise 1 stallion, 1–5 mares and their offspring, remain stable over many years. When the stallion is displaced by another the mares usually remain together, although some herds split up. A dominance hierarchy exists, but leadership is not confined to the dominant member. Foals leave their maternal herds at a mean age of 21.9 months. The herd stallion tries to prevent foals from leaving the herd.2. Bachelor groups are not as rigidly structured as breeding herds but core groups could be identified through a Principal Components Analysis. Family ties may be important in the establishment of core groups. Bachelors succeed in becoming herd stallions when ca. 5 years old.3. The recipient of a threat moving away seems to be an adequate response. Submissive behaviour was only recorded in bachelors. Fighting is rare, with biting as an important element. Compared to plains zebras, sounds made in communication are limited. Social grooming mainly occurs between mare and foal. Grooming intention movements may be an appeasement gesture.4. An oestrus mare assumes a characteristic posture. Flehmen occurs. Urine and faeces of oestrus mares are often marked by the stallion. This cannot be explained functionally and is not restricted to eliminations of oestrus mares. Penis erection and jerking by resting stallions could serve as a warning signal, but may be masturbatory.5. The herd stallion actively herds members of his herd and reduces intraherd antagonism by means of threats. He usually leads when the herd goes to drink and brings up the rear when the herd moves away from danger.6. Play was rarely recorded.7. A challenge ritual is performed when herd stallions meet. When challenged by a herd stallion, a bachelor is submissive.8. Foals initially remain close to their mothers and have to learn the correct orientation when suckling. A single adoption was recorded.9. Individuals apparently recognise each other after long periods.10. Cape mountain zebras react to alarm signals of antelopes.11. The greater part of the day is devoted to grazing. A significantly greater percentage of the day is spent resting in winter than in summer. Cape mountain zebras mainly stand while resting, but resting in sternal or lateral recumbency also occurs. Defaecation and urination occurs throughout the day with no definite peaks.12. Grooming consists of localized muscle contractions, shaking, striking one part of the body against another or against the ground, rubbing, dust-bathing, scratching and nibbling.13. In cold weather, Cape mountain zebras seek shelter in wooded kloofs. Zusammenfassung * 1Bergzebras bilden Familien und Junggesellengruppen. Familien bestehen aus einem Hengst, 1–5 Stuten und deren Nachwuchs. Harems bleiben jahrelang unverändert. Wird der Hengst verdrängt, so bleiben die Stuten meist zusammen. Es besteht eine Rangordnung, doch führt nicht nur das dominante Tier. Fohlen verlassen die Familie mit durchschnittlich 21,9 Monaten. Der Familienhengst versucht, die Fohlen am Weggehen zu hindern. * 2Junggesellengruppen sind nicht so fest strukturiert wie die Familien, doch lassen sich Kerngruppen durch Hauptkomponentenanalyse identifizieren. Familienbeziehungen können für das Entstehen soldier Kerngruppen wichtig sein. Junggesellen können im Alter von ungefähr 5 Jahren Familienhengste werden. * 3Flucht ist offenbar die ausreichende Reaktion auf Drohung. Unterwürfiges Verhalten wurde nur bei Junggesellen beobachtet. Kämpfe sieht man selten. Bergzebras haben weniger Kommunikationslaute als Steppenzebras. Soziale Hautpflege findet meist zwischen Stute und Fohlen statt. PflegeIntentionsbewegungen können zur Streitschlichtung benutzt werden. * 4Rossige Stuten nehmen eine charakteristische Stellung ein. Flehmen kommt vor. Harn und Kot rossiger Stuten werden oft vom Hengst markiert. Erektion des Penis mit Zuckungen beim ruhenden Hengst kann entweder als Warnsignal oder als Masturbation gedeutet werden. * 5Der Hengst herdet die Mitglieder seiner Familie und bremst innerfamiliäre Aggression durch Drohen. Gewöhnlich führt er die Familie zur Tränke und verläßt als Letzter die Gefahrenzone. * 6Spielen wurde selten beobachtet. * 7Wenn Familienhengste sich treffen, findet ein Herausforderungs-Ritual statt. Junggesellen reagieren unterwürfig, wenn sie so herausgefordert werden. * 8Fohlen bleiben anfangs nahe bei der Mutter. Sie müssen die richtige Orientierung beim Säugen erlernen. Eine Adoption wurde registriert. * 9Individuen scheinen sich nach langer Zeit wiederzuerkennen. * 10Bergzebras reagieren auf die Alarmsignale von Antilopen. * 11Der größte Teil des Tages wird zum Grasen gebraucht. Im Winter gibt es signifikant längere Ruheperioden als im Sommer. Bergzebras ruhen meist stehend. Exkremente werden den ganzen Tag über ausgeschieden. Zur Körperpflege gehören örtliche Muskelkontraktionen, Schütteln, Schlagen eines Körperteils gegen einen anderen oder gegen den Boden, Reiben, Staubbaden, Kratzen und Knabbern. * 12Bei kaltem Wetter suchen Bergzebras in bewaldeten Schluchten Schutz.
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Sherry, D. F., & Galef Jr, B. G. (1984). Cultural transmission without imitation: Milk bottle opening by birds. Anim. Behav., 32(3), 937–938.
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Price, E. O. (1984). Behavioral aspects of animal domestication. Q Rev Biol, 59.
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Sato, S. (1984). Social licking pattern and its relationships to social dominance and live weight gain in weaned calves. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci., 12(1), 25–32.
Abstract: Social licking patterns of heifer and steer herds were observed and recorded during periods of resting and intermittent feeding. The results revealed the following features: (1) heifers and steers had 15.0 and 15.2 social licking interactions per hour which lasted for 37.8 and 41.0 s on average, respectively. The average time an animal spent licking was about 25 s per hour; (2) all the animals in the herds were licked by others, but only 72.3% of the animals licked other animals; (3) the animals close in the social hierarchy tended to lick each other for a longer time than did remote animals; (4) the time receiving l licking and weight gain tended to be positively correlated. The observations suggest that (1) the motivation of giving licking may be individual-specific and may be influenced by genetic factors, while that of receiving licking appears to be general, and that (2) social licking may mean not only cleaning the skin and hair of a passive partner, but also leading it to psychological stability.
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Seyfarth, R. M., & Cheney, D. L. (1984). The acoustic features of vervet monkey grunts. J Acoust Soc Am, 75(5), 1623–1628.
Abstract: East African vervet monkeys give short (125 ms), harsh-sounding grunts to each other in a variety of social situations: when approaching a dominant or subordinate member of their group, when moving into a new area of their range, or upon seeing another group. Although all these vocalizations sound similar to humans, field playback experiments have shown that the monkeys distinguish at least four different calls. Acoustic analysis reveals that grunts have an aperiodic F0, at roughly 240 Hz. Most grunts exhibit a spectral peak close to this irregular F0. Grunts may also contain a second, rising or falling frequency peak, between 550 and 900 Hz. The location and changes in these two frequency peaks are the cues most likely to be used by vervets when distinguishing different grunt types.
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BAGTACHE B et al,. (1984). Paläontologie – Présence d`un Equus cacallin et d`une autre espéce nouvelle d`Equus dans l`Aterien des Allobroges, Agérie. C R Acad Sc Paris, 298, 609–612.
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DUNCAN P et al,. (1984). Reduction of inbreeding in a natural herd of horses. Anim Beh av, 32, 520–527.
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Eisenmann V,. (1984). Sur quelques caractères adaptatifs du squelette d`Equus et leurs implications paléoécologiques Bull. Bull Mus natn Hist nat Paris, 6, 185–195.
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Eisenmann V, G. C. (1984). Morphologie fonctionelle et environnement chez les périssodactyles. Geobios, Mém sp, 8, 69.
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Epstein H,. (1984). Ass, mule and onager. In In Manson: Evolution of domesticatd animals. (pp. 174–184).
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